Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 October 2025 | 17(10): 27563–27575
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9617.17.10.27563-27575
#9617 | Received 08 January 2025 | Final received 24 September 2025 |
Finally accepted 04 October 2025
The impact of anthropogenic
activities on Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822 (Mammalia: Pholidota:
Manidae) in Sepanggar Hill,
Malaysia
Nurasyiqin Awang Shairi
1 , Julius Kodoh 2, Normah Binti Awang Besar 3 &
Jephte Sompud 4
1–4 Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan
UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
1 nasyiqin8@gmail.com, 2 julius@ums.edu.my,
3 normabr@ums.edu.my, 4 jephte@ums.edu.my
(corresponding author)
Editor: L.A.K. Singh,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Date of publication: 26 October 2025 (online & print)
Citation: Shairi, N.A., J. Kodoh, N.B.A. Besar & J. Sompud (2025). The impact of
anthropogenic activities on Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822 (Mammalia: Pholidota:
Manidae) in Sepanggar Hill,
Malaysia. Journal of Threatened Taxa 17(10): 27563–27575. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9617.17.10.27563-27575
Copyright: © Shairi et al. 2025. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing
adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Universiti Malaysia Sabah and the Pangolin Consortium.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Nurasyiqin Awang Shairi is a postgraduate (master’s) student at the Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Her research focuses on the ecology and behavior of the Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica) using camera-trap methods, emphasizing human–wildlife interaction and conservation in urban forest landscapes. Julius Kodoh is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. He teaches forest plantations and silvicultural practices, with research interests in forest ecology, wildlife management, and biodiversity assessment for sustainable forest conservation. Normah binti Awang Besar is the dean of the faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, and Head of the Living Laboratory (SFERA@UMS) where the Sunda Pangolin population is found. Her expertise is in forest soil science and sustainable management of tropical forest ecosystems. Jephte Sompud is a senior lecturer at the faculty of Tropical Forestry, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. He leads the Pangolin Research Group at UMS, conducting multidisciplinary research on wildlife ecology and conservation, particularly the critically endangered Sunda Pangolin in urban forest ecosystems.
Author contributions: NAS: Led field data collection and prepared the initial draft of the manuscript. JK: co-supervised and contributed to critical manuscript revision and refinement of the text. NbAB: Provided administrative coordination and strategic oversight throughout the project. JS: Conceptualized the study design and supervised academics as well as all fieldwork activities.
Acknowledgments: This study was funded by UMSGreat GUG0611-1/2023, Universiti Malaysia Sabah Research Grant SBK0424, and the Pangolin Consortium. We would like to express our gratitude to the Sabah Biodiversity Council (SaBC) for granting the necessary permits (JKM/MBS.1000-2/13JLD.265). Special thanks to the fieldwork team for their invaluable assistance during data collection. We also extend our profound thanks to the reviewers whose insights and feedback significantly enhanced this manuscript.
Abstract: The Sunda Pangolin,
also known as Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822 (Pholidota: Manidae), is the only pangolin species found in Malaysia.
This species is ‘Critically Endangered’ as per the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species and is among the most heavily trafficked mammals globally.
Anthropogenic activities such as residential development and frequent human
movement near forest edges have increasingly threatened the safety of the Sunda Pangolin. These activities not only lead to habitat
fragmentation but also expose wildlife to elevated noise levels and human
disturbances due to the proximity of
settlements. Therefore, this study aims to determine the impact of
anthropogenic activities that influences the distribution of Sunda Pangolins in Sepanggar Hill
using camera trap survey method. Ten camera traps were set up in a systematic
random design from May 2023–January 2024. The distances of nearest human
settlements from the camera traps and anthropogenic noise level were also
measured. The data from the camera traps and the anthropogenic noise level were
collected every month. Over 2,724 trapping nights, camera traps captured five
pangolin events. The Pearson correlation shows very weak correlations (-0.24 -
0.32) on the correlation of Sunda Pangolin presence
and the proximity to the human settlements based on 2,741 data points. Despite
high noise levels ranging 44.3 – 57.0 dB, Sunda
Pangolins were detected more frequently near the first camera trap (N = 348, r
= 0.147, p = 0.006**), an area with the highest anthropogenic noise, indicating
a degree of noise tolerance. These findings highlight the adaptability of Sunda Pangolins to disturbed habitats as long as they do
not feel threatened, but also underscore the necessity for targeted
conservation efforts to mitigate more areas. Preserving quieter environments
and reducing human impact is critical to ensure the survival of Sunda Pangolins in Sepanggar
Hill. This research provides valuable insights for developing effective
conservation strategies to protect this Critically Endangered species.
Keywords: Activity pattern, adaptability, camera trap,
Critically Endangered, human impact, human presence, human proximity, noise
level, Sunda Pangolin.
Introduction
Sabah, on the island of Borneo,
supports high biodiversity, and is home to key wildlife species essential for
ecosystem function, including the Clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi, Bornean Tembadau
Bos javanicus lowi,
Bornean Pygmy Elephant Elephas maximus borneensis,
and Sunda Pangolin Manis javanica
(Hearn et al. 2019; Sompud et al. 2022, 2023; Hiew et al. 2023). These species contribute significantly
to habitat stability and ecological processes. Their persistence is
increasingly threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and illegal trade, which
collectively undermine regional biodiversity (Sompud
et al. 2019; Giordano et al. 2023).
The Sunda
Pangolin Manis javanica (Desmarest,
1822, Pholidota: Manidae)
(Image 1), also known as the Malayan or Javan Pangolin, is a species of
pangolin native to southeastern Asia. These solitary and nocturnal mammals are
primarily found in various habitats, including tropical forests, subtropical
forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas. Sunda
Pangolins are adept climbers, often dwelling in trees, and utilizing their
strong, curved claws to forage for ants, and termites (Chong et al. 2020). They
play a crucial role in the ecosystems by controlling insect populations (Lim
& Ng 2008; Sompud et al. 2019).
Despite their ecological
importance, Sunda Pangolins are Critically Endangered
due to severe threats from illegal wildlife trade and habitat destruction (Challender et al. 2019). They are among the most heavily
trafficked mammals globally, driven by
high demand for their scales, and meat (Challender
et al. 2015; Aisher 2016; Nash et al. 2018). In
Peninsular Malaysia, the Sunda Pangolin is protected
under the Wildlife Protection Act No. 72 of 1972 (Sing & Pantel 2009). Meanwhile, in Sabah, the Sunda
Pangolin is listed as a protected animal species, in Part I of Schedule 2 of
the State’s Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 (Pantel
& Anak 2010). Internationally, it is listed in
Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES). Despite these legal protections, Sunda
Pangolins continue to be captured, and illegally traded across southeastern
Asia, including in Malaysia (Ariffin & Nan 2018).
The scales are highly valued in traditional medicine, particularly in China,
and Vietnam, for their alleged health benefits (Cheng et al. 2017).
Additionally, pangolin meat is considered a delicacy in some cultures
(Duckworth et al. 2008). The relentless poaching and habitat loss have pushed
the Sunda Pangolin to the brink of extinction,
necessitating urgent global conservation, and law enforcement efforts to combat
the illicit trade, and protect the species.
The relationship between Sunda Pangolins and humans is fraught with challenges.
Conservation of the Sunda Pangolin is hindered by
differing levels of awareness and participation across community groups (Nash
et al. 2020; Jomes et al. 2023). Human encroachment
on their habitats through deforestation and agricultural expansion displaces
pangolins, leading to increased contact with human settlements. This often results
in pangolins being accidentally caught in traps set for other animals, which
subsequently increases poaching rates. Although previous studies suggest that Sunda Pangolins can tolerate some level of human presence
(Chong et al 2020; Withaningsih et al. 2021; Nursamsi et al. 2023), their ability to
survive in areas affected by people largely depends on the type and intensity
of the activities, less harmful actions like research or hiking may not disturb
them, while more damaging activities like logging, and land clearing can
seriously impact their chances of living in those areas. Human encroachment,
especially when involving habitat modification such as felling trees or
agricultural expansion, can disrupt pangolin behavior, diminish food source,
and reduce habitat quality (Panjang 2015; Chao et al. 2020).
Furthermore, Subba et al. (2024) stated that urban
expansion results in habitat fragmentation, negatively affecting pangolin
occupancy rates due to increased human disturbance.
Hence, studying the impact of
human activities on the Sunda Pangolin is crucial for
several reasons. Firstly, it helps in understanding how human activities
influence pangolin behaviour and resource access,
which can inform effective conservation strategies (Bhandari et al. 2025; Chen
et al. 2025). Secondly, such research can identify critical habitats needing
protection to ensure the survival of this endangered species by pinpointing
areas most affected by human activities (Camaclang et
al. 2015; Peters et al. 2023). Thirdly, investigating these dynamics offer
insights into human-wildlife negative interactions, guiding strategies to
benefit both local communities, and wildlife (Sompud
et al. 2023). Addressing the impact of human activities such as logging and
forest degradation requires comprehensive, long-term approaches that go beyond
ecological research. These include preserving remaining natural habitats,
enforcing wildlife protection laws more effectively, and engaging local
communities through education to reduce demand for pangolin products, and
increase awareness of the species’ Critically Endangered status.
The objectives of this study are
to assess the impact of anthropogenic activities that influences the
distribution of Sunda Pangolin. These anthropogenic
activities were measured based on the anthropogenic proximity, anthropogenic
activity patterns, and anthropogenic noise in Sepanggar
Hill. As such these are the specific objectives; 1) to assess the distribution
of Sunda Pangolins in Sepanggar
Hill, 2) to determine how human presence influences pangolin distribution in Sepanggar Hill, 3) to determine the correlation between the
proximity to human settlements and the presence of the Sunda
Pangolin, 4) to determine the correlation between anthropogenic noise levels
and the presence of the Sunda Pangolin, and 5) to
determine the activity pattern of human and Sunda
Pangolins.
This study hypothesizes that Sunda Pangolins exhibit a positive response to certain
aspects of human presence, particularly in areas where direct threats such as
hunting are absent or minimal. It is proposed that Sunda
Pangolins may be more frequently detected near human settlements or
infrastructure due to indirect benefits such as reduced presence of natural
predators, increased availability of food sources like termites associated with
human-modified environments, or the presence of secondary vegetation that
provides suitable cover. Furthermore, in areas with consistent and
non-threatening human activity, Sunda Pangolins may
become habituated and show reduced avoidance behaviour,
allowing them to utilize edge habitats, and anthropogenic landscapes more
freely. This suggests that under specific conditions, human-modified
environments may offer ecological opportunities that Sunda
Pangolins can exploit, indicating a level of behavioural
flexibility, and potential for coexistence with humans in low-risk
environments.
Materials
and methods
Study Area
The study area is located in Sepanggar Hill, Universiti
Malaysia Sabah (UMS), commonly known as UMS forest (Figure 1). This area
includes Sustainable Forest and Research Area at Universiti
Malaysia Sabah (SFERA@UMS), a 0.25 km2 of land that has been set
aside as a forest reserve by the UMS management to be utilized for forest
research and education development (The Borneo Post 2022). It is located
northwest of the campus with coordinates of 6.037o N and 116.115o
E. Sepanggar Hill is a 2.2 km² secondary forest with
its tallest peak at 190 m (Majuakim et al. 2018). The
terrain varies from flat to hilly with some steep slopes. The land cover within
the study area primarily consists of secondary forested habitats, although
certain parts have been cleared, and are currently used as agricultural land.
Notably, UMS protected and managed a small area for conservation, and research
purposes (SFERA@UMS), while the other half is classified as state land, which
lacks formal protection for biodiversity. This site was chosen because Sunda Pangolins were first found here in 2023, with no
research done on their ecology (Sompud et al. 2023).
Methodology
The study
employs a combination of camera trap surveys, decibel meters, and geographical
tools to investigate the impact of anthropogenic activities on Sunda Pangolins. Camera traps are utilized to monitor and
record the presence of both humans and Sunda Pangolins
at each camera trap stations, providing data on their frequency of occurrence.
To assess anthropogenic noise level, a decibel meter was used to measure the
level of anthropogenic noise at the camera trap stations. Additionally, Google
Maps was employed to calculate the distances between human settlements, and the
camera trap locations, offering insights into how proximity to human activity
influences pangolin behaviour.
Camera Trap Survey
The camera
trap survey was conducted over eight months, from 17 May 2023–28 January 2024.
The plot size was 300 x 300 m to maximize coverage by the camera traps. Each
plot included a camera trap station with one camera trap. Stations were
selected using a systematic random design (Stehman et al. 1992). The selection
criteria for camera trap locations were based on ecological features known to
attract Manis javanica, such as wildlife
trails (Image 2), termite mounds (Image 3), and areas with dead trees (Image 4)
(Simo et al. 2023). Each station was chosen to represent a range of
microhabitats across the study area, ensuring varied terrain coverage. The
consistency in habitat type was maintained by positioning camera traps within
the secondary forest, avoiding areas with dense undergrowth that might obscure
the field of view.
Upon determining the optimal position, each
camera trap, equipped with an infrared sensor, was affixed to the base of a
tree, positioned approximately 20–40 cm above ground level using a belt (Image
5). Placement adjustments were made based on topographical considerations,
ensuring an appropriate camera angle (Ancrenaz et al.
2012). Following setup, batteries, and a memory card were inserted, and a
walk test was conducted to confirm the camera’s coverage of the selected areas.
Camera trap data were collected on a monthly basis, including battery
replacement. The camera traps were set to capture images instead of videos
because video files are much larger, which would have filled up the memory
quickly, and reduced the amount of data that could be collected. The captured
images were analyzed to detect the presence of Sunda
Pangolins and humans. Additionally, the images obtained from the camera traps
were utilized to assess the activity patterns of both humans and the pangolins
by recording the number of human and pangolin events captured by the camera
traps hourly.
Measuring distances between
camera trap locations and the nearest human settlements
The distances from each camera
trap station to the nearest human settlement were measured using Google Maps,
based on straight-line (Euclidean) distance from the center point of each
settlement to the exact GPS coordinates of each camera trap location (Trianni et al. 2014). For consistency, the nearest house or
structure from each settlement to the study area was selected as the reference
point. This approach was used to reflect the point of first human presence
closest to the forest edge, which is more relevant to the Sunda
Pangolin’s sensitivity to human disturbance. While this method does not account
for the full spatial extent of each settlement, it provides a standardized, and
ecologically relevant measure of the nearest point of human activity to the
study area. Five closest settlements were chosen: Kolej
Kediaman Tun Mustapha
(KKTM), Kolej Kediaman Tun Fuad (KKTF), Kolej Kediaman Tun Pengiran Ahmad Raffae (KKTPAR), Kg. Numbak, and
Kg. Kebagu (Figure 1). The total number of UMS
residents in the KKTM, KKTF, and KKTPAR are 1,600, 1,400, and 3,000 students,
respectively (Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 2015). Meanwhile,
the total number of humans resides in Kg. Numbak and
Kg. Kebagu were estimated to be 600 and 300 people,
respectively (Alim pers. comm. 24.xi.2023; Abniti pers. comm. 20.viii.2024).
Measuring anthropogenic oise levels
Anthropogenic noise levels were
measured manually using a calibrated decibel meter model of SL-5868P from May
2023–April 2024 (Akpan & Obisung 2022). The
decibel meter was calibrated before each field deployment to ensure accurate
sound level readings. Calibration was conducted using a standard sound level
calibrator set at 94 dB at 1 kHz. This process allowed for consistent baseline
measurements across different collection periods.
Sound readings were taken during
times of minimal wind activity to limit external interference. Furthermore, the
noise level was only taken during the day because the noise levels at night are
much lower than during daytime due to less noise pollution at night (Anomohanran & Osemeikhian
2006). For example, the calls for prayers can only be heard once at night,
compared to the day, and there are fewer cars, and buses at night. Vegetation
density was accounted for by positioning the decibel meter in open clearings
near the camera trap stations to prevent absorption or reflection effects from
dense foliage. Readings were conducted at approximately ear height to
standardize the measurement environment and mitigate sound propagation issues
related to variable terrain and vegetation (Alademomi
et al. 2020). This data was meticulously recorded and entered into an Excel
spreadsheet for further analysis.
Data analysis
Distribution of the Sunda Pangolin in Sepanggar Hill
For the first objective, the data
collected from the camera traps were meticulously organized in an Excel
spreadsheet. This spreadsheet included detailed information such as the camera
trap stations, dates, times, locations, the number of Sunda
Pangolin events, the number of human events, and the image titles. A
descriptive analysis was conducted to map the distribution of Sunda Pangolins within Sepanggar
Hill. Each plot where Sunda Pangolins were present
was marked on a detailed map of the area, providing a visual representation of
their distribution across the study site. The occupancy rate was also
calculated by using the following equation:
Number of sites
occupied
Occupancy rate (ψ) =
––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Total number of sites surveyed
Impact of Human Presence and
Settlements on Pangolins
To achieve the second and third
objective, a two-tailed Pearson correlation coefficient analysis was conducted
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The Pearson
correlation is a parametric statistical test used to measure the strength and
direction of the linear relationship between two variables, with values ranging
from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive correlation)
(Berman 2016). In this study, the analysis was based on 2,741 data collected
from 10 camera trap stations distributed across Sepanggar
Hill, with each station contributing one observation. The dependent variable
was the presence of Sunda Pangolins, coded as 1 for
presence and 0 for absence. Independent variables included the presence of
humans (1 = present, 0 = absent), as well as the distances (in km) from each
camera trap station to five human settlements: KKTM, KKTF, KKTPAR, Kg. Numbak, and Kg. Kebagu. This
analysis aimed to determine whether there was a significant relationship
between Sunda Pangolin presence and human-related
factors in the study area.
Activity pattern
For the fourth objective, the
activity pattern was analyzed by calculating the total events of human presence
and the presence of Sunda Pangolin in each plot of
camera trap during diurnal, and nocturnal times. Diurnal time is defined as the
time taken between 0600–1759 h -(12 hr) and the
nocturnal time is the period between 1800–0559 h (12 hr)
(Semiadi et al. 1993). The data was calculated and
analyzed using descriptive analysis by observing, and counting the number of
events of human presence, and the Sunda Pangolin
presence in the camera trap pictures every 60 minutes. Hence, the data was
counted as one if multiple pictures were taken within 60 minutes (Gardner &
Goossens 2017). The data were then presented in an
image to measure humans’ and Sunda Pangolins’
relative number of active times for each camera trap station.
Anthropogenic noise levels
For the fifth objective, the
relationship between the presence of Sunda Pangolins
and the average anthropogenic noise levels was also analyzed using Pearson
correlation coefficient analysis in SPSS (Fialho et
al. 2025). Noise levels were recorded monthly at each camera trap
station using decibel meters, and these data were correlated with the frequency
of pangolin detections at each station. The correlation analysis was performed
individually for each camera trap to assess whether higher noise levels
affected pangolin activity and distribution. This analysis provided insights
into the impact of noise pollution on the behavior and habitat use of Sunda Pangolins within Sepanggar
Hill.
Results
And Discussions
In general, 1,17,993 pictures
were captured, derived from 2,724 trapping nights. Six camera traps were
relocated after three months because those camera traps captured no Sunda Pangolin. During the survey, the camera traps also
captured images of various other wildlife species, highlighting the
biodiversity within Sepanggar Hill. These species
included groups of Long-tailed Macaques Macaca
fascicularis, Mouse Deer Tragulidae
sp., Monitor Lizard Varanus sp.,
Birds (Aves sp.), Squirrels Sciurus sp.,
Water Buffaloes Bubalus bubalis,
Masked Palm Civets Paguma larvata, and Ground Tortoise Testudinidae
sp. This diverse array of animals underscores the ecological richness of
the area and the importance of preserving this habitat, not only for the
Critically Endangered Sunda Pangolin but also for the
myriad of other species that coexist within this ecosystem.
Distribution of the Sunda Pangolin
Despite the high volume of data, Sunda Pangolins were recorded in only five events at four
camera trap stations (CT1, CT3, CT5, and CT7) with an occupancy rate of 40%.
The distribution of Sunda Pangolins appeared to be
concentrated towards the center of Sepanggar Hill and
more towards the UMS campus, as shown in Figure 2. This spatial distribution
could be influenced by several factors, including habitat preferences such as
human encroachment, and their preference for undisturbed environments (Liu
& Weng 2014; Chong et al. 2020).
In this study, the differences in
human activities within UMS campus and outside of the campus may contribute to
the visitation factor of the Sunda Pangolin. UMS has designated 0.25 km2 of land
in the Sepanggar Hill forest as a forest reserve,
which serves as a research area (The Borneo Post, 2022). This protected status
may contribute to the presence of Sunda Pangolins in
camera trap stations located closer to UMS, as they do not feel threatened even
though there are existing anthropogenic activities that are confined to
research and education activities only. On the other hand, the areas that are
outside of the UMS campus are accessible to the residents who live near the
forested areas. We observed during the course of this study that there were
some areas that had become barren due to the felling of trees by the people
around the area, totalling 0.099 km2. This
could be the reason why the Sunda Pangolin does not
prefer to visit areas outside of the UMS campus, as this species are vulnerable
to habitat loss, and poaching (Challender et al.
2012).
Although the study recorded only
five independent Sunda Pangolin events within a
limited study area, which may constrain the statistical power and generalizability
of the findings, this limitation is expected given the species’ elusive behaviour, and Critically Endangered status (Panjang et al.
2024). Reliable field data on Sunda Pangolins remain
scarce, and even a small number of detections can offer valuable insights into
their habitat use and potential responses to anthropogenic disturbances. These
preliminary findings provide a foundation for future, larger-scale research,
and underscore the importance of long-term monitoring efforts in human-impacted
landscapes.
The Presence of Sunda Pangolins and Humans
Pangolins show some resilience to
moderate human disturbances depending on various factors (Zanvo
et al. 2023). In the current study, it was found that the presence of Sunda Pangolins was detected even in areas with recorded
human presence, as evident by camera trap data (Figure 3). The human presence
ranged from 2–120 individuals during data collection, with one to three
individuals recorded per event. In this study, the Pearson correlation analysis
examined the relationship between Sunda Pangolin
presence and distance from five human-related locations: KKTM, KKTF, KKTPAR,
Kg. Numbak, and Kg. Kebagu.
The correlation values were -0.24, -0.12, 0.00, 0.32, and -0.01, respectively,
with a sample size of 2,741 (Table 1). These values show very weak
relationships, meaning that the distance from human areas does not strongly
affect whether pangolins are present or not.
Interestingly, the analysis
showed a weak negative correlation near KKTM and KKTF, which are residential
areas for UMS staff and students. People in these areas mostly do research or
hiking, not harmful activities. However, because people are regularly present
there, the Sunda Pangolins might avoid the area even
if there is no direct threat. This may be because disturbances like human noise
or lingering scent trails can affect wildlife, especially, since pangolins
depend on their sense of smell to find food while foraging (DiPaola
et al. 2020).
On the other hand, a weak
positive correlation was found near Kg. Numbak and
Kg. Kebagu, even though people in these villages do
more harmful activities like cutting trees and using fire to clear land. One
reason for this might be that these destructive actions usually happen during
the day, while pangolins are active at night. Additionally, disturbed areas may
offer improved burrows, and foraging conditions for pangolins, such as
increased access to termites in decaying wood (Dorji
2017; Chao et al. 2020).
Other studies support the idea
that pangolins respond differently depending on the situation. Some studies,
like Karawita et al. (2017), say that pangolins tend
to avoid humans as they are highly sensitive to human activities (Manshur et al. 2015; Anasari et
al. 2021; Sulaksono et al. 2023). But others,
like Chong et al. (2020), found that pangolins are sometimes seen in
human-modified areas. In one case, a pangolin was even spotted walking inside a
shop at KKTPAR without showing fear, suggesting that they may get used to
humans in places where they are not hunted (Sompud et
al. 2023).
Overall, the results suggest that
Sunda Pangolins do not completely avoid areas with
people. Instead, they might adjust based on how often people are around, what
kind of activities they do, and whether the environment still meets their
needs. This shows that pangolins may have some ability to live in areas where
human activity is present, especially when the risks are low, and resources are
still available (Chong et al. 2020; Nash et al. 2020).
Activity pattern of Sunda Pangolins and humans
Humans are
primarily diurnal due to the nature of the human body which operates on the
circadian rhythm and other biological factors that help modulate activity
levels during daylight hours (Bonny & Firsov
2012; Andreatta & Allen 2021). In this study, the
humans were observed to be diurnal, in which they are active during daytime
(Figure 4). For instances, the humans were mostly seen active from 0600–1859
h, with the peak activity observed from 1400–1459 h as
observed in Figure 4. On the contrary, the Sunda
Pangolins were observed to be active at night from 2000–0159 h, with
peak activity at range time between 2200–2259 h . This shows that the Sunda Pangolin is a nocturnal mammal species as seen in
previous research (Lim & Ng 2008; Challender et
al. 2012; Sompud et al. 2019). Based on Figure 4,
there were no instances where Sunda Pangolins and
humans were present simultaneously at the same location. This temporal
separation suggests that there is no direct overlap in the activities of Sunda Pangolins and humans in the Sepanggar
Hill forest, which might be a coping mechanism for the pangolins to avoid human
encounters. This behavior could be crucial for their survival in disturbed
habitats where human presence is significant.
Currently,
there is a dearth of studies specifically examining the activity patterns of Sunda Pangolins and humans. The nocturnal behaviour observed in this study aligns with previous
research conducted by Lim & Ng (2008), Challender
et al. (2012), and Sompud et al.
(2019), which consistently reported nocturnal activity in Sunda
Pangolins. In contrast, humans are diurnal which means that they are primarily
active during the day and resting at night. This nocturnal lifestyle allows
them to coexist with humans, however, it also increases their susceptibility to
poaching (Khatiwada et al. 2022).
Anthropogenic noise level and
presence of the Sunda Pangolin
Sunda Pangolins, like many nocturnal
mammals, rely heavily on their acute sense of hearing for foraging and predator
avoidance (DiPaola et al. 2020). Increasing levels of
anthropogenic noise can interfere with these crucial activities. The analysis
shows that there is a positive correlation between noise levels and pangolin
presence at Camera Trap Station 1 (N = 348, r = 0.147, p = 0.006**). The
anthropogenic noises that were observed come from cars, aeroplanes,
people talking, the call to prayer (adhan), and occasional ferry horns. The
observations of this study revealed that the noise levels in Sepanggar Hill ranged 44.3–57.0 dB (Figure 5). Based on the
Figure 5, the Sunda Pangolin was detected in areas
ranging 47.6–57.0 dB. This suggested that the Sunda Pangolin can tolerate the noise levels below 57.0 dB
as it is still below the threshold that can causes stress on the species. A
study done by Manci (1988) found that noise levels up to 60 dB does not cause
negative response to animals that have habituated to noise (Johansson et al.
2016). Therefore, it was suggested that the Sunda
Pangolin have adapted the noise level in Sepanggar
Hill.
This result is somewhat
unexpected, given that previous research, such as Shannon et al. (2016) and Withaningsih et al. (2018), found that many wildlife
species, including pangolins, tend to avoid areas which are above 40 dB (Duporge et al. 2021). High noise levels, between 52–68 dB
are generally thought to interfere with foraging, communication, and predator
avoidance behaviour, leading to increased stress, and
decreased reproductive success in many wildlife species (Nursamsi
et al. 2023; Shannon et al. 2016). In a study done by Dipaola
et al. (2020), the Sunda Pangolin was
suggested to react to loud noises, and may adjust their tail position, and
their movement to minimize the noise they make in their natural environment.
Although pangolins may not rely on sound to find prey, it is likely they use it
to detect, and avoid predators. A similar study was done by Sabin et al.
(2024) on the impacts of anthropogenic noise on other pangolin species in
Chandragiri-Champadevi Hills, Nepal. The study
focuses more on the impacts of noise on the foraging and resting burrow count
for Chinese Pangolins in the study area. It was found that the presence of
these species at foraging burrows is significantly higher in areas with
elevated noise levels (0.285 ± 0.073 m), ranging 22.67–58.00 dB. This could be due to their preference for agricultural
areas which are the potential habitats for these species (Newton et al. 2008).
In contrast, the impact of noise on resting burrow selection by Chinese
Pangolins was deemed insignificant. This shows that anthropogenic noise impacts
only certain behaviors of the Chinese Pangolins such as foraging.
Conclusion
In
conclusion, there were impacts of the anthropogenic activities on the Sunda Pangolin in Sepanggar Hill,
such as human presence, proximity to
human settlements, activity pattern, and anthropogenic noise levels. The
analysis results indicate a positive correlation between the Sunda Pangolin and anthropogenic activities, specifically,
proximity to human settlements, and anthropogenic noise levels. It was found
that the Sunda Pangolin does not avoid humans
completely as evident in this study. For instance, the Sunda
Pangolins were still detected even in areas near human settlements with minimal
activity pattern such as CT1. This shows that the Sunda
Pangolins have adapted to human presence in Sepanggar
Hill. On the other hand, it was observed
that anthropogenic noise levels do not impact the Sunda
Pangolins that much despite being significant at CT1. This could be due to the
insufficient data over the six-month period, and the noise levels recorded are
below 60 dB. Thus, it is concluded that three out of
four parameters of the anthropogenic activities had impacted the Sunda Pangolin.
Given these findings, it is clear that while pangolins
can coexist with low-impact human activities, the more severe impacts of
habitat destruction, and noise from areas outside UMS threaten their survival.
Therefore, we recommend for collaborative conservation efforts between the
local governments, non-government organisations, and
researchers at UMS by enforcing stricter regulations to protect Sunda Pangolins. By combining knowledge and resources,
these groups can develop a clear strategy that addresses the species’ needs,
and their habitat by limiting deforestation, and land-clearing activities in Sepanggar Hill forest, and nearby areas. Thus, it is
important to secure enough funding and resources to execute this plan. These
funds can be used to put protective measures in place, support research, and
ensure that the efforts to conserve pangolins can continue over time. Working
as a team will help achieve long-term success in protecting this Critically
Endangered species. In addition, buffer zones should be set up around Sepanggar Hill to provide a safe space between humans and
wildlife by minimizing the anthropogenic noise, construction, and agricultural
development, on the habitats of the Sunda Pangolins. These buffer zones would act as
transitional spaces and introducing noise barriers, reducing direct human encroachment,
and providing a safe boundary for pangolins to thrive. These steps could
provide actionable pathways to mitigate threats to Sunda
Pangolins while promoting coexistence with human activities.
For figures & images - -
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