Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 November 2025 | 17(11): 27842–27853
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9487.17.11.27842-27853
#9487 | Received 11 November 2024 | Final received 01 January 2025 |
Finally accepted 30 October 2025
Restoring biodiversity: case
studies from two sacred groves of Kozhikode District, Kerala, India
Department of Botany, Farook
College (Autonomous), Kozhikode, Kerala 673632, India.
kishorebotany@farookcollege.ac.in
Abstract: Floristic studies were conducted
at Mannur Shiva Temple (MST) and Vadayil Kavu (VDK), two eco-restoration sites
(Pachathuruthu) established by the Haritha Keralam Mission of the
Government of Kerala in the sacred groves of Kadalundi Grama Panchayath,
Kozhikode District, Kerala, India. A total of 171 plant species were identified
from both the study areas, of which 41 were found in both sites. Most of these
plants were Indo-Malesian in distribution. Tropical American or Pantropical
distribution came in second and third. There were 45 medicinal plants and 25
endemics in MST, compared to 49 medicinal plants and nine endemics in VDK.
About 25 species reported from MST, and 17 from VDK were not represented in the published Flora of Calicut. All these indicate
the conservation importance of the area. The importance of conducting
comprehensive biodiversity research, continuous monitoring, need for maintenance,
and expansion of these eco-restoration
zones, and the conservation value of such “Pachathuruthu” are also discussed.
Keywords: Conservation, eco-restoration
sites, floristic studies, Haritha Keralam Mission, Kadalundi, Mannur Shiva
Temple, Pachathuruthu, Vadayil Kavu.
Editor: Erach Bharucha, Bharati Vidyapeeth
University, Pune, India. Date of publication: 26 November 2025 (online & print)
Citation: Kumar, K.K. (2025). Restoring
biodiversity: case studies from two sacred groves of Kozhikode District,
Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 17(11): 27842–27853. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9487.17.11.27842-27853
Copyright: © Kumar 2025. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The project was partly funded by
Haritha Keralam Misson, Government of Kerala.
Competing interests: The author declares no
competing interests.
Author details: K. Kishore Kumar is a plant taxonomist
and ccologist, currently serving as associate professor and head of the
Department of Botany at Farook College, Kozhikode, Kerala. With extensive
research experience at the Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Peechi,
Kerala, he has over three decades of experience in forestry and about 25 years
of teaching experience. His key research interests include plant morphology and
taxonomy, ecology, ethnobotany, biodiversity conservation, plant succession,
and medicinal and poisonous plants.
Acknowledgements: I wish to thank the
officials of Haritha Keralam Mission, Dr. T.N. Seema (executive vice
chairperson), Mr. P. Prakash (Kozhikode district co-ordinator), and Mr. K.
Shibin (Resource person) for their support. For their contributions during the
fieldwork, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my students K.M.
Harsha, N.U. Teena, T.K. Fathima Fidha, M. Fidha Fathima, and P. Farhan Althaf.
I also want to express my appreciation to Dr. N. Sasidharan, former scientist,
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Prof. Jomy Augustine, St. Thomas College,
Pala and Dr. P. Dileep, grass taxonomist for confirming the identity of some
specimens. I am also obliged to my principal and the faculty members of the
Department of Botany for their help and valuable suggestions during this
project work.
INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity is important for a
variety of reasons, including enhancing the aesthetic value of the natural
environment and advancing our material well-being through utilitarian values by
supplying food, fuel, fodder, lumber, medicine, and other resources (Rawat
& Agarwal 2015). Effective conservation of biodiversity is essential to the
survival of humans and environmental processes (Paoli et al. 2010). Due to
human activity, thousands of species are in danger of becoming extinct. Future
population growth and economic prosperity are expected to push extinction to
previously unheard-of levels (Tilman et al. 2017). Future extinction rates will
be ten times higher than present rates if every species currently classified as
threatened goes extinct during the next century (Pimm et al. 1995). In this
context, ecological restoration is becoming increasingly popular worldwide.
Ecological Restoration and The ‘Pachathuruthu’
Project of Kerala State
The UN General Assembly in New
York announced in 2019, that the years 2021–2030 will be known as the “UN
Decade on Ecosystem Restoration” (Waltham et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2021). The
goal of this call to action is to raise awareness of the urgent need to combat
climate change, restore damaged ecosystems worldwide at a dramatically
accelerated pace, improve food security, ensure clean water, and safeguard the
planet’s biodiversity. The Haritha Keralam Mission formed by the Kerala
Government has also launched an ecological restoration initiative known as
‘Pachathuruthu’ which translates to ‘Green Islands’ (In Malayalam: Pacha
= green, thuruthu = island).
In addition to creating and
maintaining natural biodiversity groves by incorporating distinctive trees and
native flora, the Pachathuruthu project seeks to identify and preserve arid
areas, especially those found in public spaces. It is implemented with the
cooperation of local self-governing bodies, several government funded schemes,
various government departments, environmental organizations, educational
institutions, and people’s representatives.
This project is planned to be
implemented in 500 acres of land spread across 250 village panchayats. Saplings
of indigenous trees and plants are planted in fallow lands and vacant spots
available in public places, which are identified by the local bodies (Seema
2019, 2020). According to government records, a total of 3,551 Pachathuruthu
have been established across the State of Kerala by November 2024, covering
about 1,073 acres of land to date (https://nkp.kerala.gov.in,
https://haritham.kerala.gov.in).
In Kozhikode District, there are
224 Pachathuruthu which are spread over
a total area of 54.92 acres (2,22,253 m2). Among these, there are
big Pachathuruthu areas such as Navodaya Vidyalayam (Maniyoor), Devaharitham 1
(Kodiyathur), Devaharitham 2 (Mavooor), and Kallikkunnu (Kozhikode
corporation) which have an area of 200 cents (~8,100 m2) to small
areas such as Ormmathuruth (Valayam), Payimbra school (Kuruvattoor), and
Makkootam (Kunnamangalam) which have only one cent (40.5 m2)
area. Some of these conservation areas
are located in well protected sacred groves, which are patches of forests
preserved by communities as sanctified natural spaces, often associated with spiritual
beliefs and cultural traditions (Seema 2020). After the establishment of
various Pachathuruthu areas in Kerala (mostly in 2019), only a single survey
was conducted to evaluate their status. In Kozhikode District, this survey was
conducted in February 2021 during the COVID period by the author himself, as
per the request of the Haritha Keralam Mission. Since it was summer, the
majority of the herbaceous and other ephemeral plants were either in the dried
or dead condition. Hence, a comprehensive picture of the biodiversity was
lacking in the report published after the survey by the Government of Kerala
(Seema 2022).
It was in this context, this
study was planned to cover both the monsoon and winter seasons, so that the
paucity of the information is resolved. Moreover, this study conducted in two
sacred groves where eco-restoration is done, will help to bring out the
biodiversity potential of these areas. If such studies are carried out in all
the Pachathuruthu areas of the state, they will yield good information on these
ecorestoration areas, thereby helping the authorities to plan environmentally
sustainable policies and programmes for their conservation and management.
Study Area
Both the Pachathuruthu areas
where the studies were conducted are located in the Kadalundi Gram Panchayat of
Kozhikode District, Kerala State, India. The panchayat is situated in a coastal
zone, facing the Arabian Sea on the west and Kadalundi River on the south. It
has an area of 11.83 km2. According to the 2011 census, the
population of the panchayat is 42,516 (Ref: https://dop.lsgkerala.gov.in).
Mannur Siva Temple Pachathuruthu
(Image 1)
Established on 25 September 2019,
it consists of 20 cents of land and is situated in the Ward – 6 (Vadakkumbad
ward) of the Panchayat. The site is located at the entrance of the Mannur Shiva
temple, on its left side (Image 1). This old and beautiful Shiva temple is very
unique in its shape, having a sanctum sanctorum in the shape of the backside of
an elephant. It is about 5 km away from the Feroke railway station and 18
km away from Karippur International Airport. It is located at an altitude of
11.58 m in the geo-cordinates of 11.152o N & 75.833o
E.
About 55 seedlings of different
species were planted here during 2019, at the time of its establishment. During
the survey conducted by the author on 13 February 2021, a total of 37 species
which included two herbs, six shrubs, three climbers, and 26 trees could be
enumerated (Seema 2022).
Vadayil Kavu Pachathuruthu (Image
2)
The Pachathuruthu, which consists
of 50 cents of land was established on 07 September 2020 and is situated in the
Ward – 14 (Kadalundi East) of the panchayat. It is situated on the premises of
the Vadayilkavu Bhagavathy temple, less than 1 km away from the Kadalundi Railway
gate. Towards the south, it is bordered by the Kadalundi River with a lot of
mangrove species growing in the borders. It is located at an altitude of 11.52
m in the geo-cordinates of 11.1320N & 75.8300E.
During monsoon, the area near the shores remain flooded.
Approximately 180 seedlings of
various species were planted in this area in 2020 as part of an active
restoration effort, but many failed to establish due to saltwater intrusion.
During the survey conducted by the author on 13 February 2021, a total of 22
species which included four herbs, two shrubs, one climber, and 15 trees were
enumerated (Seema 2022).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Several field trips were
conducted to both the study areas, especially during the monsoon and winter
seasons of 2022–2023 to enumerate the ephemerals and annuals (a tree survey
during summer was conducted in 2021 also). The Haritha Keralam Mission authorities
and ward members were interviewed to learn the history of the locality and to
collect other relevant information regarding the planting activities done in
the area. The plants were identified using the floras by Manilal &
Sivarajan (1982), Sasidharan (2004), and Gamble & Fischer (1915–1936);
their world distribution statuses were collected from the websites such as powo.science.kew.org,
keralaplants.in, eflorakerala.com and indiabiodiversity.org. The threatened and
endemic plants were evaluated using publications such as Henry et al. (1979),
Ahmedulla & Nayar (1987), Basha & Nair (1991), Karunakaran et al.
(1991), and online information systems like Environmental Information System
(ENVIS). The medicinal plants were analyzed using Neshamani (1985) and
Sasidharan (2011).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Altogether a total of 171 species
of angiosperms, one gymnosperm, and seven pteridophytes were enumerated from
both the study areas (Table 1). The species are tabulated in the alphabetical
order of family and species names, and their presence in the study areas is
indicated by an asterisk (*) mark. The phenology and world distribution of the
species is also provided. The study areas, Mannur Siva Temple Pachathuruthu and
Vadayil Kavu Pachathuruthu are abbreviated as MST and VDK respectively. Other
abbreviations used in the table are H—Herb, S—Shrub, T—Tree, C—Climber,
M—Medicinal, E—Endemic, TTY – Throughout the year, MST—Mannur Siva Temple
Pachathuruthu, and VDK—Vadayil Kavu Pachathuruthu.
Habit and Family Status
At Mannur Siva Temple Pachathuruthu
(MST), 59 species of herbs, 18 shrubs, 15 climbers, and 34 small or medium
trees could be enumerated. At the same time, at Vadayil Kavu Pachathuruthu (VDK),
there were 36 species of herbs, 11 shrubs, 10 climbers, and 29 small or medium
trees.
At MST, there were 126 flowering
plant species, which belonged to 118 genera under 52 families. There were 105
dicots and 21 monocots. The most dominant dicot family was Fabaceae,
represented by 12 species, followed by Asteraceae (11), Poaceae (10),
and Euphorbiaceae (7), while the most dominant genera were Lindernia, Blumea,
Dioscorea, Leucas, Phyllanthus, Spermacoce, and Terminalia. Among
the monocots, there were eight families, the dominant ones being Poaceae (10
spp.), Araceae (3 spp.), and Commelinaceae (2 spp.). There were five
pteridophyte species and one gymnosperm species (Cycas circinalis) also.
At VDK, 86 flowering plant
species (61 dicots and 25 monocots) could be enumerated, which belonged to 81
genera under 37 families. The most dominant family was Poaceae, represented by
12 species, followed by Fabaceae (9), Asteraceae (7), and Euphorbiaceae
(4), while the most dominant genera were Terminalia, Clerodendrum,
Cyperus and Eragrostis. Two pteridophyte species (Stenochlaena
palustri and Acrostichum aureum) could also be enumerated.
Distributional Status of The
Species and Endemism
At MST, the majority of the
plants studied exhibited Indo-Malesian distribution (25 nos. / 20% of the
total). Sixteen species (12.7%) had tropical American distribution and 13 (10.3%)
species showed pantropical distribution.
At VDK also, the majority of the
plants exhibited Indo-Malesian distribution (20 nos. / 23% of the total). Ten
species (11.6%) had pantropical distribution and eight (9.3%) species showed
tropical American distribution. For details see Tables 1 & 2.
At MST, out of the total 126
species, 25 were endemics. Three species were endemic to India (Dipteracanthus
prostratus, Dioscorea alata, & Olea dioica), while seven species
had an extended distribution to Sri Lanka. About six species had distribution
extending from Peninsular India to Sri Lanka. While four species had
distribution restricted to the Western Ghats, another three endemic species
were found only in the southern Western Ghats region.
At VDK, out of the total 86
species, nine were endemics. One species was found endemic to India (Olea
dioica), while six species had an extended distribution to Sri Lanka. The
wild orchid Bulbophyllum sterile is a peninsular Indian endemic, while
the poisonous tree Holigarna arnottiana is a narrow endemic, found only
in the southern Western Ghats region (Ahmedullah & Nayar 1987). For details
see Tables 1 & 2.
Upon comparing the list of the
collected species with Manilal & Sivarajan (1982), it was found that 25
species enumerated from MST were not reported in it. Similarly, 17 species
enumerated from VDK were also not represented in the flora (Table 1). These
species would have been remained overlooked in this study, or may be recenty
introduced to this areas.
Phenological Status
In both the study areas, the
majority of the species studied (nearly 30%) started flowering with the onset
of the southwest monsoon period (June–August) and continued to bear flowers
during the entire monsoon period. At MST, 25 species (~20%) started flowering
during the north-east monsoon period while at VDK, 10 species (~12%) behaved
like that. This shows that 40–50 % of the species start and often complete
their reproductive cycles during the monsoon period before the area dries up,
which highlights the importance of this study. In both areas, nearly 20% of
species (mainly shrubs and tees) started flowering during the summer months and
16 species bear flowers throughout the year (Table 3).
Medicinal Uses
It is well known that out of the
5,679 documented species in Kerala, approximately 873 plants are used for
various medicinal purposes (www.eflorakerala.com – 08 Nov 2024). This explains
why the Ayurvedic medical system is so successful in Kerala State. It was
understood that, in the Pachathuruthu areas under investigation, roughly 68
species (54% of the 126 listed) at the MST were medicinal plants (Sasidharan
2011). In the same way, 49 species (57% of the 86 species) in VDK were
medicinal plants. This emphasizes how important it is to preserve these areas,
when even the sacred groves face severe threats of destruction nowadays.
The Asteraceae and Fabaceae
families had the most number of medicinal plants at MST (6 spp. each), followed
by the Euphorbiaceae (5) and Lamiaceae (4). However, the Fabaceae family
possessed the most medicinal plants (7 spp.) at VDK, followed by the Asteraceae
(4) and Euphorbiaceae (3), demonstrating the significance of these three
families in terms of their adaptability and distribution in these areas.
Moreover, a good majority of these species were herbs (Figure 1), which were
neglected during the earlier studies, which highlights the importance of this
study (Table 1).
Biodiversity Threats and
Conservation Issues
From the study conducted, it
became evident that both the study areas, MST and VDK being temple premises are
considered highly sacred and do not have many conservation issues. Lack of
funding for maintenance poses problems in the conservation efforts at MST. As a
result, numerous weeds have overtaken the area, which limit the growth of
seedlings that have been planted. Even though many medicinal plants (more than
50% of the total species) are flourishing in the region, improper care by
removing the so-called ‘unwanted plants’ ruin the diversity.
In contrast, the number of
planted seedlings and other species at VDK has significantly decreased as a
result of routine cleaning and maintenance operations in the temple grounds,
where many devotees congregate. As this Pachathuruthu is situated on the
Kadalundi River’s bank, saline water intrusion during monsoon and high tides,
affects the growth of the plants.
CONCLUSIONS
It was understood that the
conservation of these two ecorestoration areas, MST and VDK which are rich in
rare, endemic, and medicinal plants holds profound ecological and cultural
significance. Such areas, especially located in sacred groves, act as vital
reservoirs of biodiversity, safeguarding unique species that are often adapted
to specific ecological niches and are irreplaceable in their native
environments. The preservation of rare and endemic plants contributes to the
resilience of local ecosystems, supporting diverse wildlife and stabilizing
soil and water quality. Additionally, medicinal plants in these areas are
invaluable not only for traditional healing practices but also as sources for
modern pharmaceuticals, offering untapped potential for new therapeutic
compounds. Protecting and restoring this biodiversity-rich area is crucial to
ensure ecological balance, preserving genetic resources, and sustaining the
cultural and medicinal heritage that these plants embody.
It was also understood that there
is a lack of proper funding for the maintenance and development, which poses
problems in the conservation of these areas. Due to the negligence in
maintenance, many weeds have invaded the area, thereby restricting the growth
of the planted seedlings. Improper weeding done by inexperienced labourers, may
also destroy the diversity, since a lot of medicinal plants (>50%) are found
growing in the area.
It also became evident that, if
similar studies are carried out in all the Pachathuruthu areas of the state,
covering the monsoon, winter, and summer seasons, they will yield fantastic
information about these eco-restoration areas, thereby helping the authorities
to plan better environmentally sustainable policies and programmes for their
conservation and management.
Table 1. Details regarding the flora of Mannur Siva
Temple and Vadayil Kavu Pachathuruthus.
A. ANGIOSPERMS
|
|
Scientific name |
Habit |
Family |
Flowering & Fruiting |
World distribution |
MST |
VDK |
Remarks |
|
1 |
Acanthus
ilicifolius |
S |
Acanthaceae |
Dec–Jul |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
|
* |
|
|
2 |
Andrographis
paniculata |
H |
Acanthaceae |
Mar–Dec |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E |
|
3 |
Asystasia
dalzelliana |
H |
Acanthaceae |
Sep–Jan |
Tropical Asia and Africa |
* |
* |
|
|
4 |
Dipterocanthus
prostratus |
H |
Acanthaceae |
Oct–Apr |
India |
* |
|
E |
|
5 |
Justicia procumbens |
H |
Acanthaceae |
Jun–Dec |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
* |
* |
NR |
|
6 |
Rhinacanthus
nasutus |
S |
Acanthaceae |
Nov–Feb |
India, Sri Lanka, Java, and
Madagascar |
* |
|
M |
|
7 |
Achyranthes aspera |
H |
Amaranthaceae |
Oct–Mar |
Pantropical |
* |
|
M |
|
8 |
Alternanthera
bettzickiana |
H |
Amaranthaceae |
Oct–Feb |
Native of tropical America; now
invasive in Asia |
* |
* |
NR |
|
9 |
Pancratium
triflorum |
H |
Amaryllidaceae |
Mar–May |
India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E |
|
10 |
Anacardium
occidentale |
T |
Anacardiaceae |
Nov–Apr |
Native of South America; now
widely cultivated in Asia and Africa |
* |
|
M |
|
11 |
Holigarna
arnottiana |
T |
Anacardiaceae |
Jan–Jul |
Southern Western Ghats |
* |
* |
M, E |
|
12 |
Alstonia scholaris |
T |
Apocynaceae |
Oct–Feb |
Southern and southeastern Asia
to Australia |
* |
|
M |
|
13 |
Cerbera odollam |
T |
Apocynaceae |
Jul–Nov |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
M |
|
14 |
Ichnocarpus
frutescens |
C |
Apocynaceae |
Aug–Mar |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
* |
* |
M |
|
15 |
Tabernaemontana
divaricata |
S |
Apocynaceae |
TTY |
Native of southern Himalaya |
* |
|
|
|
16 |
Thevetia peruviana |
S |
Apocynaceae |
TTY |
Native of tropical Peru, widely
invasive |
* |
|
|
|
17 |
Arisaema
leschenaultii |
H |
Araceae |
Jul–Sep |
Southern Western Ghats |
* |
|
M, E, NR |
|
18 |
Colocasia esculenta |
H |
Araceae |
May–Oct |
Pantropical |
* |
* |
M |
|
19 |
Pothos scandens |
C |
Araceae |
Oct–Nov |
India to Malesia and Madagascar |
* |
* |
|
|
20 |
Areca catechu |
T |
Arecaceae |
TTY |
Cultivated from India to the
Solomon Islands and less commonly in Africa and tropical America |
|
* |
M |
|
21 |
Caryota urens |
T |
Arecaceae |
Jan–Apr |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
|
|
22 |
Cocos nucifera |
T |
Arecaceae |
TTY |
Cultivated throughout the
tropic, |
|
* |
M |
|
23 |
Ageratum conyzoides |
H |
Asteraceae |
Aug–Dec |
Pantropical |
* |
* |
M |
|
24 |
Blumea axillaris |
H |
Asteraceae |
Jan–Nov |
Indo-Malesia to Australia and
Africa |
* |
|
|
|
25 |
Blumea oxyodonta |
H |
Asteraceae |
Oct–May |
Indo-Malesia and southern China |
* |
|
|
|
26 |
Chromolaena odorata
|
S |
Asteraceae |
Nov–May |
Native of America; naturalised in Tropical
Asia |
* |
|
|
|
27 |
Eclipta prostrata |
H |
Asteraceae |
TTY |
Pantropical |
* |
* |
M |
|
28 |
Elephantopus scaber |
H |
Asteraceae |
Jan–Oct |
Pantropical |
* |
* |
M |
|
29 |
Eleutheranthera
ruderalis |
H |
Asteraceae |
May–Nov |
Native of tropical America; now
established in several Asian countries |
|
* |
NR |
|
30 |
Emilia sonchifolia |
H |
Asteraceae |
Jul–Dec |
Tropical and subtropical Africa
and Asia |
* |
|
M |
|
31 |
Sphaeranthus
indicus |
H |
Asteraceae |
Jan–Apr |
Indo-Malesia, Australia, and
Africa |
* |
|
M |
|
32 |
Synedrella
nodiflora |
H |
Asteraceae |
TTY |
Native of West Indies |
* |
|
|
|
33 |
Tridax procumbens |
H |
Asteraceae |
TTY |
Native of tropical America; now
widespread throughout tropics and subtropics |
* |
* |
|
|
34 |
Vernonia cinerea |
H |
Asteraceae |
TTY |
Pantropics |
* |
* |
M |
|
35 |
Sphagneticola
trilobata |
H |
Asteraceae |
Jun–Sep |
Native of tropical America |
|
* |
NR |
|
36 |
Avicennia
officinalis |
T |
Avicenniaceae |
Apr–Nov |
Indo-Malesia to Pacific Oceans |
|
* |
M |
|
37 |
Impatiens flaccida |
H |
Balsaminaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Southern India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
E |
|
38 |
Tecoma stans |
S |
Bignoniaceae |
Dec–Apr |
Native of South America; now
widely cultivated |
* |
|
|
|
39 |
Cleome burmannii |
H |
Capparaceae |
Feb–Aug |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
|
|
40 |
Carica papaya |
T |
Caricaceae |
TTY |
Native of Tropical America
cultivated in the topics and subtropics |
* |
* |
M |
|
41 |
Calycopteris
floribunda |
C |
Combretaceae |
Jan–May |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
42 |
Terminalia
bellirica |
T |
Combretaceae |
Dec–Jan |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
43 |
Terminalia catappa |
T |
Combretaceae |
Mar–Jan |
Malaysia to northern Australia
and in the tropic |
|
* |
|
|
44 |
Terminalia chebula |
T |
Combretaceae |
Feb–Aug |
South Asia |
|
* |
M, NR |
|
45 |
Terminalia cuneata |
T |
Combretaceae |
Nov–Jun |
India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E, NR |
|
46 |
Commelina paludosa |
H |
Commelinaceae |
Nov–Dec |
Himalaya and India |
* |
|
NR |
|
47 |
Cyanotis
arachnoidea |
H |
Commelinaceae |
Aug–Nov |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
E, NR |
|
48 |
Connarus wightii |
S |
Connaraceae |
Mar–May |
Western Ghats |
* |
|
E, NR |
|
49 |
Costus speciosus |
H |
Costaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
50 |
Cyperus iria |
H |
Cyperaceae |
Nov–Dec |
Tropical Asia and eastern
Africa; introduced in U.S.A and West Indies |
* |
* |
|
|
51 |
Cyperus tenuispica |
H |
Cyperaceae |
TTY |
Tropical and subtropical Africa
and Asia |
|
* |
|
|
52 |
Fimbristylis
dichotoma |
H |
Cyperaceae |
Mar –Dec |
Pantropical |
|
* |
|
|
53 |
Kyllinga nemoralis |
H |
Cyperaceae |
Jul–Nov |
Pantropical |
* |
|
M |
|
54 |
Dioscorea alata |
C |
Dioscoreaceae |
TTY |
India |
* |
|
M, E, NR |
|
55 |
Dioscorea bulbifera |
C |
Dioscoreaceae |
Sep–Oct |
Paleotropics |
* |
|
M |
|
56 |
Dioscorea spicata |
C |
Dioscoreaceae |
Aug–Dec |
India and Sri Lanka |
|
* |
E, NR |
|
57 |
Elaeocarpus
serratus |
T |
Elaeocarpaceae |
Apr–Sep |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
NR |
|
58 |
Antidesma montanum |
T |
Euphorbiaceae |
Jan–Dec |
Indo-Malesia and eastern
Himalaya |
* |
* |
|
|
59 |
Briedelia retusa |
T |
Euphorbiaceae |
Aug–Dec |
Indo-Malaya |
* |
|
|
|
60 |
Euphorbia hirta |
H |
Euphorbiaceae |
TTY |
Native of tropical America; now
pantropical |
|
* |
M |
|
61 |
Macaranga peltata |
T |
Euphorbiaceae |
Jan–Feb |
India, Sri Lanka and Andamans |
* |
* |
M |
|
62 |
Mallotus
philippensis |
T |
Euphorbiaceae |
Oct–Mar |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
* |
|
M |
|
63 |
Microstachys chamaelea |
H |
Euphorbiaceae |
Jul–Dec |
Indo-Malesia to Australia |
* |
|
M, NR |
|
64 |
Phyllanthus emblica |
T |
Euphorbiaceae |
Jul–Feb |
Throughout the tropics |
* |
|
M |
|
65 |
Phyllanthus
urinaria |
H |
Euphorbiaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Native of tropical eastern
Asia; now a circumtropical weed |
* |
|
M |
|
66 |
Tragia involucrata |
H |
Euphorbiaceae |
Jul–Dec |
India and Sri Lanka |
|
* |
M, E |
|
67 |
Saraca asoca |
T |
Fabaceae |
Feb–Aug |
India and Myanmar |
* |
|
|
|
68 |
Bauhinia variegata |
T |
Fabaceae |
Sep–May |
Possibly native of China; wild
in sub Himalaya and India |
* |
|
NR |
|
69 |
Cassia fistula |
T |
Fabaceae |
Feb–Sep |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
70 |
Saraca asoca |
T |
Fabaceae |
Feb–Aug |
India and Myanmar |
|
* |
M |
|
71 |
Abrus precatorius |
C |
Fabaceae |
Oct–May |
Pantropical |
|
* |
M NR |
|
72 |
Centrosema molle |
C |
Fabaceae |
Sep–Jan |
Native of America, indroduced
in India |
* |
|
|
|
73 |
Dalbergia latifolia |
T |
Fabaceae |
Aug–Sep |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
NR |
|
74 |
Derris trifoliata |
C |
Fabaceae |
Jan–Oct |
Paleotropic |
|
* |
M |
|
75 |
Desmodium triflorum |
H |
Fabaceae |
Jul–Dec |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
* |
|
M |
|
76 |
Galactia tenuiflora |
C |
Fabaceae |
Oct–Feb |
Indo-Malesia, Australia, and
Africa |
* |
|
NR |
|
77 |
Gliricidia sepium |
T |
Fabaceae |
Mar–May |
Native of South America;
Introduced and now widely grown in India |
* |
|
|
|
78 |
Pongamia pinnata |
T |
Fabaceae |
Apr–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
79 |
Pterocarpus
marsupium |
T |
Fabaceae |
Sep–Oct |
India and Sri Lanka |
* |
* |
M, E, NR |
|
80 |
Vigna umbellata |
C |
Fabaceae |
Oct–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
NR |
|
81 |
Adenanthera
pavonina |
T |
Fabaceae |
Jan–Sep |
Sri Lanka, North East India,
Myanmar, China Thailand and Malesia |
* |
* |
|
|
82 |
Mimosa pudica |
H |
Fabaceae |
Jul–Jan |
Native of South America; now
Pantropical |
* |
* |
M |
|
83 |
Canscora pauciflora |
H |
Gentianaceae |
Oct–Nov |
Endemic to Western ghats |
* |
|
M, E |
|
84 |
Rhynchoglossum
notonianum |
H |
Gesneriaceae |
Jul–Dec |
South West India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
E |
|
85 |
Curculigo
orchioides |
H |
Hypoxidaceae |
Jun–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
M |
|
86 |
Hyptis suaveolens |
S |
Lamiaceae |
Aug–Feb |
Originally from America now
Pantropical |
* |
|
|
|
87 |
Leucas aspera |
H |
Lamiaceae |
Sep–Jan |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
88 |
Leucas
lavandulifolia |
H |
Lamiaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Indo-Malesia and East Asia |
* |
|
M, NR |
|
89 |
Ocimum tenuiiflorum |
S |
Lamiaceae |
TTY |
Palaeotropic |
* |
* |
M |
|
90 |
Platostoma hispidum |
H |
Lamiaceae |
Sep–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
|
|
91 |
Pogostemon
atropurpureus |
S |
Lamiaceae |
Feb–May |
Southern Western Ghats |
* |
|
M, E, NR |
|
92 |
Careya arborea |
T |
Lecythidaceae |
Feb–Jul |
Tropical Areas |
* |
|
M |
|
93 |
Asparagus racemosus |
C |
Liliaceae |
Jul–Aug |
Paleotropical |
|
* |
M |
|
94 |
Gloriosa superba |
C |
Liliaceae |
Jul–Dec |
Paleotropical |
|
* |
M |
|
95 |
Hugonia mystax |
C |
Linaceae |
Aug–Oct |
India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E |
|
96 |
Strychnos
nux-vomica |
T |
Loganiaceae |
Mar–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
M |
|
97 |
Lagerstroemia
speciosa |
T |
Lythraceae |
Mar–Nov |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
98 |
Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis |
S |
Malvaceae |
TTY |
Native of Pacific Islands;
cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries |
* |
* |
M |
|
99 |
Malvaviscus
penduliflorus |
S |
Malvaceae |
TTY |
Native of tropical America |
* |
|
|
|
100 |
Sida cordata |
H |
Malvaceae |
Jan–Apr |
Pantropical |
* |
|
M |
|
101 |
Thespesia populnea |
T |
Malvaceae |
Mar–Jun |
Pantropical |
|
* |
M |
|
102 |
Azadirachta indica |
T |
Meliaceae |
Feb–Sep |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
103 |
Swietenia
macrophylla |
T |
Meliaceae |
Apr–Mar |
Native of Central America |
|
* |
NR |
|
104 |
Anamirta cocculus |
C |
Menispermaceae |
Aug–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
105 |
Cyclea peltata |
C |
Menispermaceae |
Apr–May |
India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E |
|
106 |
Tiliacora acuminata |
C |
Menispermaceae |
Apr–Dec |
India, Sri Lanka, and
southeastern Asia |
|
* |
M |
|
107 |
Artocarpus
heterophyllus |
T |
Moraceae |
Nov–Apr |
Widely cultivated in the
tropics, origin probably southern India |
* |
|
|
|
108 |
Artocarpus incisus |
T |
Moraceae |
Jan–Jun |
Native of Pacific Islands |
|
* |
|
|
109 |
Ficus religiosa |
T |
Moraceae |
Nov–Feb |
Eastern Himalaya; invasive in India
and neighbouring countries |
* |
* |
M |
|
110 |
Musa paradisiaca |
H |
Musaceae |
TTY |
Cultivated throughout the
tropic |
|
* |
M |
|
111 |
Syzygium cumini |
T |
Myrtaceae |
Dec–Apr |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
112 |
Jasminum
angustifolium |
C |
Oleaceae |
Nov–Mar |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
|
* |
M, E |
|
113 |
Jasminum
malabaricum |
S |
Oleaceae |
Mar–Nov |
Western Ghats |
* |
|
E |
|
114 |
Olea dioica |
T |
Oleaceae |
Nov–Apr |
India |
* |
* |
M, E |
|
115 |
Cansjera rheedei |
C |
Opiliaceae |
Nov–Feb |
India through Malaya to Hong
Kong and North Australia |
* |
|
|
|
116 |
Bulbophyllum
sterile |
H |
Orchidaceae |
Dec –Jan |
Peninsular India |
|
* |
E, NR |
|
117 |
Vanda testacea |
H |
Orchidaceae |
Apr–May |
India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, NR |
|
118 |
Biophytum
sensitivum |
H |
Oxalidaceae |
Feb–Sep |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, NR |
|
119 |
Peperomia pellucida |
H |
Piperaceae |
Sep–Dec |
Native of tropical America; now
Pantropical |
* |
|
|
|
120 |
Piper nigrum |
C |
Piperaceae |
Jul–Mar |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
|
* |
M, E |
|
121 |
Alloteropsis
cimicina |
H |
Poaceae |
Jul–Nov |
Paleotropical |
|
* |
|
|
122 |
Axonopus compressus |
H |
Poaceae |
TTY |
Tropics and subtropics |
* |
|
NR |
|
123 |
Bambusa bambos |
S |
Poaceae |
Jul–Feb |
India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E |
|
124 |
Brachiaria
miliiformis |
H |
Poaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
NR |
|
125 |
Cynodon dactylon |
H |
Poaceae |
Mar–Oct |
Tropical and warm temperate
regions of the world |
* |
* |
M |
|
126 |
Cyrtococcum
trigonum |
H |
Poaceae |
Sep–Oct |
Southeastern Asia, Sri Lanka,
and Peninsular India |
|
* |
|
|
127 |
Dactyloctenium
aegyptium |
H |
Poaceae |
TTY |
Native of South America,
invasive in Paleotropics |
* |
* |
M |
|
128 |
Eleusine indica |
H |
Poaceae |
TTY |
Pantropical |
* |
* |
|
|
129 |
Eragrostis tenella |
H |
Poaceae |
Jul–Nov |
Paleotropic, introduced in
America |
|
* |
|
|
130 |
Eragrostis
unioloides |
H |
Poaceae |
TTY |
Southeastern Asia, India, and
Africa |
* |
* |
|
|
131 |
Isachne miliacea |
H |
Poaceae |
TTY |
India, China, and southeastern
Asia |
|
* |
NR |
|
132 |
Oplismenus burmannii |
H |
Poaceae |
Sep–Nov |
Pantropical |
* |
* |
|
|
133 |
Pennisetum
polystachyon |
H |
Poaceae |
Apr–Dec |
Paleotropical |
* |
|
|
|
134 |
Sacciolepis indica |
H |
Poaceae |
Jun–Feb |
Tropical Asia, Australia and
introduced in Africa and America |
|
* |
|
|
135 |
Setaria pumila |
H |
Poaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Paleotropical |
* |
* |
|
|
136 |
Ziziphus oenoplia |
S |
Rhamnaceae |
Nov–Mar |
Tropical Asia and Australia.
Throughout the hotter parts of India |
* |
|
M |
|
137 |
Bruguiera
cylindrica |
T |
Rhizophoraceae |
Dec –Oct |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
NR |
|
138 |
Carallia brachiata |
T |
Rhizophoraceae |
Oct–Apr |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
* |
* |
|
|
139 |
Chassalia
curviflora var. ophioxyloides |
S |
Rubiaceae |
Jul–Feb |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
NR |
|
140 |
Ixora coccinea |
S |
Rubiaceae |
TTY |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
|
* |
M, E |
|
141 |
Knoxia sumatrensis |
H |
Rubiaceae |
Aug–Sep |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
* |
* |
NR |
|
142 |
Mitracarpus hirtus |
H |
Rubiaceae |
Jul–Dec |
Tropical Africa and America |
* |
|
|
|
143 |
Morinda citrifolia |
S |
Rubiaceae |
Jul–Nov |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
M |
|
144 |
Oldenlandia
corymbosa |
H |
Rubiaceae |
Apr–Sep |
Pantropical |
* |
|
M, NR |
|
145 |
Spermacoce
latifolia |
H |
Rubiaceae |
Aug–Oct |
Native of tropical America; now
established in tropical Africa and Asia |
* |
|
|
|
146 |
Spermacoce
ocymoides |
H |
Rubiaceae |
Nov–Dec |
Indo-Malesia and tropical
Africa |
* |
|
|
|
147 |
Aegle marmelos |
T |
Rutaceae |
Mar–May |
India and Sri Lanka; widely
cultivated in South East Asia |
* |
|
M, E |
|
148 |
Zanthoxylum rhetsa |
T |
Rutaceae |
Mar–Nov |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
149 |
Santalum album |
T |
Santalaceae |
Nov–Dec |
Peninsular India and Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
150 |
Allophylus
subfalcatus var. distachyus |
S |
Sapindaceae |
Nov–Mar |
India, Bangladesh, and Indo-Malaya |
* |
|
NR |
|
151 |
Cardiospermum
halicacabum |
C |
Sapindaceae |
Jul–Feb |
Pantropical |
* |
|
M |
|
152 |
Chrysophyllum
cainito |
T |
Sapotaceae |
Jul–Sep |
Native of West Indies |
|
* |
|
|
153 |
Mimusops elengi |
T |
Sapotaceae |
Dec–Aug |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
M |
|
154 |
Lindernia anagallis |
H |
Scrophulariaceae |
Jul–Dec |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
|
|
155 |
Lindernia ciliata |
H |
Scrophulariaceae |
Jun–Oct |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
|
|
156 |
Lindernia crustacea |
H |
Scrophulariaceae |
Aug–Nov |
Africa, America, and tropical
and subtropical Asia |
* |
|
|
|
157 |
Scoparia dulcis |
H |
Scrophulariaceae |
TTY |
Native of tropical America; now
pantropical |
* |
|
M |
|
158 |
Helicteres isora |
S |
Sterculiaceae |
Sep–Mar |
Indo-Malesia, China, and
Australia |
|
* |
M |
|
159 |
Melochia
corchorifolia |
H |
Sterculiaceae |
Jul–Apr |
Pantropical |
* |
|
|
|
160 |
Sterculia guttata |
T |
Sterculiaceae |
Sep–Mar |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
|
M |
|
161 |
Grewia nervosa |
S |
Tiliaceae |
Aug–Apr |
Tropical Asia |
* |
|
M |
|
162 |
Trema orientalis |
T |
Ulmaceae |
Sep–Dec |
Tropical Africa, Asia, and
Australia |
* |
|
|
|
163 |
Pouzolzia zeylanica |
H |
Urticaceae |
Aug–Dec |
Tropical Asia |
* |
* |
M |
|
164 |
Clerodendrum inerme |
S |
Verbenaceae |
Nov –Dec |
Coastal India and Sri Lanka;
now invasive on the shores of Myanmar, Australia, China |
|
* |
|
|
165 |
Clerodendrum
infortunatum |
S |
Verbenaceae |
Dec–Feb |
Indo-Malesia |
* |
* |
M |
|
166 |
Gmelina arborea |
T |
Verbenaceae |
Jan–Jun |
Indo-Malesia |
|
* |
M, NR |
|
167 |
Vitex negundo |
T |
Verbenaceae |
Feb–Jul |
Indo-Malesia and China,
cultivated in the tropics |
* |
|
M |
|
168 |
Ampelocissus indica |
C |
Vitaceae |
Mar–Sep |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
M, E |
|
169 |
Cissus glyptocarpa |
C |
Vitaceae |
Apr–Oct |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
* |
|
E, NR |
|
170 |
Leea indica |
S |
Vitaceae |
Mar–Aug |
Indo-Malesia, China, and
Australia |
|
* |
M |
|
171 |
Zingiber nimmonii |
H |
Zingiberaceae |
Jul–Oct |
Western Ghats |
* |
|
M, E, NR |
|
Total number of species |
126 |
86 |
|
|||||
# Abbreviations uses in the
table: H—Herb | S—Shrub | T—Tree | C—Climber | M—Medicinal | TTY – Throughout
the year | E—Endemic | MST—Mannur Siva Temple Pachathuruthu | VDK—Vadayil Kavu
Pachathuruthu.
B. GYMNOSPERMS
|
|
Scientific name |
Habit |
Family |
World distribution |
MST |
VDK |
Remarks |
|
1 |
Cycas circinalis |
T |
Cycadaceae |
Indo-Malesia and tropical
eastern Africa |
* |
|
|
|
Total number of species |
1 |
0 |
|
||||
C. PTERIDOPHYTES
|
|
Scientific name |
Habit |
Family |
World distribution |
MST |
VDK |
Remarks |
|
1 |
Adiantum
philippense |
H |
Adiantaceae |
Tropics and subtropics |
* |
|
|
|
2 |
Drynaria
quercifolia |
H |
Polypodiaceae |
Asia, Papua New Guinea, Fiji,
Polynesia, and tropical Australia |
* |
|
|
|
3 |
Pteris confusa |
H |
Pteridaceae |
Tropics and subtropics of the
world |
* |
|
|
|
4 |
Pteris quadriaurita |
H |
Pteridaceae |
Tropics and sub,tropics |
* |
|
|
|
5 |
Selaginella
delicatula |
H |
Selaginellaceae |
Widely cultivated in India |
* |
|
|
|
6 |
Acrostichum aureum |
H |
Pteridaceae |
Tropics of the world |
|
* |
M |
|
7 |
Stenochlaena
palustris |
C |
Blechnaceae |
Australia, Myanmar, Fiji,
Malaysia, Polynesia and China |
|
* |
|
|
Total number of species |
5 |
2 |
|
||||
Table 2. Distribution of the
species enumerated from the two study areas.
|
|
Mannur Siva Temple (MST) |
Vadayil Kavu (VDK) |
||||
|
Distribution |
No of species |
% |
Distribution |
No of species |
% |
|
|
1 |
India |
3 |
2.4 |
East Himalaya |
1 |
1.2 |
|
2 |
India and Sri Lanka |
7 |
5.6 |
India |
1 |
1.2 |
|
3 |
Indo-Malesia |
25 |
19.8 |
India and Myanmar |
1 |
1.2 |
|
4 |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
8 |
6.3 |
India and Sri Lanka |
3 |
3.5 |
|
5 |
Indo-Malesia and China |
3 |
2.4 |
India to Malesia and Madagascar |
1 |
1.2 |
|
6 |
Indo-Malesia to Australia and
Africa |
5 |
4.0 |
India, China, and southeastern Asia |
2 |
2.3 |
|
7 |
Native of China |
1 |
0.8 |
Indo-Malesia |
20 |
23.3 |
|
8 |
Native of Himalaya |
2 |
1.6 |
Indo-Malesia and Australia |
6 |
7.0 |
|
9 |
Native of Pacific Islands |
1 |
0.8 |
Indo-Malesia, China, and
Australia |
2 |
2.3 |
|
10 |
Native of tropical America |
16 |
12.7 |
Native of Pacific Islands |
2 |
2.3 |
|
11 |
Paleotropics |
4 |
3.2 |
Native of tropical America |
8 |
9.3 |
|
12 |
Pantropics |
13 |
10.3 |
Paleotropics |
7 |
8.1 |
|
13 |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
5 |
4.0 |
Pantropics |
10 |
11.6 |
|
14 |
Southern and southeastern Asia
to Australia |
2 |
1.6 |
Peninsular India |
1 |
1.2 |
|
15 |
South India and Sri Lanka |
3 |
1.6 |
Peninsular India and Sri Lanka |
3 |
3.5 |
|
16 |
Southern Western Ghats |
3 |
2.4 |
Southeastern Asia, Sri Lanka,
and Peninsular India |
3 |
3.5 |
|
17 |
Throughout the tropics |
3 |
2.4 |
Southern Western Ghats |
1 |
1.2 |
|
18 |
Tropical Asia |
2 |
1.6 |
Tropics |
3 |
3.5 |
|
19 |
Tropical Asia and Africa |
3 |
2.4 |
Tropical Asia |
3 |
3.5 |
|
20 |
Tropics and subtropics |
1 |
0.8 |
Others |
8 |
9.3 |
|
21 |
Western Ghats |
4 |
3.2 |
|
|
|
|
22 |
Others |
13 |
10.3 |
|
|
|
|
|
TOTAL |
126 |
100 |
TOTAL |
86 |
100 |
Table 3. Phenological status of
the species (adapted from Sasidharan 2011).
|
|
Flowering months/ periods |
Mannur Siva Temple |
Vadayil Kavu |
||
|
No of species |
% |
No of species |
% |
||
|
1 |
June–August (South-west
monsoon) |
35 |
27.8 |
26 |
30.2 |
|
2 |
September (Light
rain, mild weather) |
11 |
8.7 |
4 |
4.7 |
|
3 |
October–November (North-east
monsoon) |
25 |
19.8 |
10 |
11.6 |
|
4 |
December–January (Winter) |
13 |
10.3 |
14 |
16.3 |
|
5 |
February–May (Summer) |
26 |
20.6 |
16 |
18.6 |
|
6 |
Throughout the year |
16 |
12.7 |
16 |
18.6 |
|
|
TOTAL |
126 |
100 |
86 |
100 |
For
images & figures – click here for full PDF
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