Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 March 2025 | 17(3): 26599–26615

ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)

https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9413.17.3.26599-26615

#9413 | Received 10 September 2024 | Final received 19 February 2025 | Finally accepted 05 March 2025

Riparian flora of Haveri District, Karnataka, India

Ningaraj S. Makanur ¹ & K. Kotresha ²

^1,2 Taxonomy and Floristic Laboratory, Department of UG, PG and Research in Botany, Karnatak University, Karnatak Science College, Dharwad, Karnataka 580001, India.

¹ ningarajsm18@gmail.com (corresponding author), ² kotresh_sk@yahoo.com

Editor: Vijayasankar Raman, National Identification Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture, USA. Date of publication: 26 March 2025 (online & print)

Citation: Makanur, N.S. & K. Kotresha (2025). Riparian flora of Haveri District, Karnataka, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 17(3): 26599–26615. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9413.17.3.26599-26615

Copyright: © Makanur & Kotresha 2025. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.

Funding: None.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Author details: Ningaraj S. Makanur is currently working as a doctoral student at Karnatak Science College, Dharwad, on floristic studies of angiosperms of Haveri district, Karnataka, and he is presently engaged in floristic exploration, ethnobotanical knowledge and medicinal plants of Northern Karnataka. He has published 12 research articles. Dr. K. Kotresha is currently working as professor and head of the Department of Botany, Karnatak Science College, Dharwad. He has 28 years of teaching experience for UG and PG students. He has published more than 80 research articles and 6 books on the floristics of the Northern Karnataka region. He has guided 10 PhD students in the field of taxonomy.

Author contributions: NSM—fieldwork, data collection, species identification and preparation of the draft; KK—designed the research and edited the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the authorities of Karnatak University Dharwad and Karnatak Science College, Dharwad, for providing necessary facilities and Mr. Shivakumar Baladi and Mr. Raju Bangali for their consistent and valuable support in the field work.

Abstract: The Haveri District is located in the central part of Karnataka, acting as a transitional zone between the Western Ghats and Maidan region. The riparian zones are the most diverse, dynamic, and complex habitats on land. The present study on the riparian vegetation along the four rivers of Haveri District identified a total of 307 species belonging to 233 genera of 73 families. Out of that 231 species are indigenous belonging to 160 genera and 68 families. The remaining 76 non-native species belong to 63 genera and 27 families. The highest number of species were recorded from the Tungabhadra River (232 species), followed by the rivers Kumadwathi (181), Dharma (156), and Varada (149). Herbs are the most common among the recorded plants, with 186 species representing approximately 61% of the total flora. With 36 species, Fabaceae is the most represented family accounting for 12% of the flora. The riparian vegetation in the study area faces several threats, including habitat loss due to encroachment for agriculture, overgrazing, dumping of plastic waste, sand mining, invasive species, and tourism activities. Effective conservation measures are needed to protect the riparian zones and their plant wealth.

Keywords: Angiosperms, aquatic plants, conservation, Dharma, diversity, Kumadwathi, nativity, rivers, Tungabhadra, Varada.

INTRODUCTION

The term riparian is derived from the Latin word ‘riparius’, referring to the banks of rivers, ponds or lakes, along with their surrounding landscapes. Riparian zones serve as the transitional areas between the aquatic and the terrestrial environment (Zaimes et al. 2010; Betz et al. 2018). They consist of the riverbed, banks, vegetation, adjacent land and floodplains, and are crucial for maintaining the water quality in aquatic ecosystems (Maraseni & Mitchel 2016; Singh et al. 2021). Riparian zones encompass the space between flowing water at low levels and the highest watermark where vegetation is influenced by floods, elevated water tables, and soil type (González et al. 2017). The riparian vegetation has been recognized as a ‘keystone ecosystem’, since it harbors unique habitats which are highly influenced by water (Sunil et al. 2016).

In Karnataka, Kotresha & Taranath (2010) recorded 275 angiosperm species in the Varahi River basin in Udupi District. Rao et al. (2014) studied the threatened tree species of swamps and riparian habitats along different streams of Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts. Previous reports reveal that there was no proper documentation of floristic resources in the riparian vegetation of Haveri district and hence it was attempted in the present study. We explored the riparian flora along four rivers, namely, Dharma, Kumadwathi, Tungabhadra, and Varada, and enumerated the angiosperm species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area

Situated in the central part of Karnataka, the Haveri District serves as a gateway to the northern districts of the state. It is located at 14.661 N, 75.434 E (Figure 1). It comprises of eight talukas, namely: Byadagi, Haveri, Hanagal, Hirekerur, Ranebennur, Rattihalli, Savanur, and Shiggaon.

Dharma River: The river Dharma is a tributary of river Varada which flows a distance of about 32 km in northern Canara and Shimoga districts and further down it enters Haveri District near Mantagi Village in Hanagal Taluka. It drains about 625 km² of area and traverses for about 56 km before joining the Varada River Kudala near Naregal. The canals flow in the middle of Hanagal and serve as a major water source for the surrounding agricultural lands.

Varada River: The Varada River originates near Varadamoola in Sagara Taluka of Shimoga District in Karnataka. It is one of the tributaries of the Tungabhadra River. It enters the Haveri District near Honkana Village in Hanagal Taluka. This river flows in a north-easterly direction in Hanagal Taluk and becomes a border between Haveri and Savanur. The river confluences with the Tungabhadra River at Galaganath. In its total length of 185 km, the Varada River traverses a distance of 101 km with several tributaries and drains an area of about 3,120 km² in the Haveri District.

Kumadwathi River: This river, also known as Joradi, originates in Agastyaparvata near Humcha of Shikaripur Taluk in Shimoga District. The river flows through northern Kumsi and Shikaripur and then enters Hirekerur Taluka. It serves as the lifeline for the Madaga tank in Masur (Madagada Kenchavvana Kere). The total length of the river is about 96 km. It flows through Ranibennur and Hirekerur taluks in Haveri District for about 32 km, before joining the Tungabhadra River at Mudenur.

Tungabhadra River: The rivers Tunga and Bhadra originate in the Western Ghats flowing north-east and merging near Kudli (16 km away from Shimoga) from there the river is called Tungabhadra. It serves as a lifeline for several districts in northern Karnataka and traverses a distance of about 403 km in the geographical limits of Karnataka State. It enters the district at 14.315 N, 75.633 E near Hallur Village of Hirekerur Taluka. Confluence of River Kumadwathi at 14.494 N, 75.697 E near Mudenur village in Ranebennur Taluka and the river Varada joins at 14.929 N, 75.682 E near Galaganath. Havanur, Galaganath, and Chaudayyadanapur are important pilgrim centers in the district located on the banks of Tungabhadra.

Data collection and analysis

The floristic diversity along riparian zones was documented along all four rivers of the Haveri District: the Dharma, Kumadwathi, Tungabhadra, and Varada Rivers. These rivers are the major sources of water in the district (Figure 1). Random and criss-cross surveys were conducted across each study site and plant specimens were collected during different seasons, from November 2020 to August 2023. Observations made during the field visits were noted in the field notebook. The collected plant specimens were pressed and prepared herbarium vouchers following the standard methods (Jain & Rao 1977). The collected specimens were treated with a diluted solution (0.1%) of mercuric chloride (HgCl₂) to prevent fungal infections. The processed herbarium specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of the Botany Department, Karnatak Science College, Dharwad (HKSCD). All the collected specimens were taxonomically identified and confirmed using relevant literature and floras, including Cooke (1958), Saldanha & Nicolson (1976), Blatter & McCann (1984), Saldanha (1984, 1996), Singh (1988), Prasad & Singh (2002), Gamble (2008), and Bhat (2014). The identified specimens were labeled with their accepted names and families as per the APG IV classification (Chase et al. 2016).

RESULTS

The present study documented a total of 307 species belonging to 233 genera from 73 families. Out of that 231 species belonging to 160 genera and 68 families are native to the Indian subcontinent, and remaining 76 species belonging to 63 genera and 26 families from the riparian vegetation of four rivers in the Haveri District of Karnataka, India (Table 1; Images 1–5 ). Of these, 249 species are dicots (181 native and 68 non-native) belonging to 63 families and 58 are monocots (49 native and 9 non-native) belonging to 10 families. The highest number of species were recorded from the riparian vegetation of the Tungabhadra River with 232 species belonging to 182 genera and 61 families. It includes 167 native species belonging to 146 genera & 59 families and 65 non-native species belonging to 56 genera & 22 families. This is followed by the river Kumadwathi with 181 species, 148 genera, & 52 families comprising of 134 native species, 115 genera, & 43 families and 48 non-native species belonging to 43 genera & 20 families. River Dharma has a diversity of 156 species belonging to 130 genera & 48 families represented by 120 native species belonging to 109 genera & 33 families and 36 non-natives belonging to 33 genera & 17 familes. River Varada has a floral diversity of 149 species belonging to 125 genera & four families, which comprises of 116 native species belonging to 102 genera & 43 families and 33 non-native species belonging to 26 genera & 17 families (Figure 2).

Life form study of the collected indigenous plants shows that herbaceous flora is dominant, with 186 species (141 native and 45 non-native) contributing to about 61% of the total flora, followed by 41 shrubs (13%; 30 native and 11 non-native), 52 trees (17%; 38 native and 14 non-native), and 28 climbers (10%; 21 native and 7 non-native). (Figure 3).

With 25 native species, Fabaceae is the most represented family, accounting for 11% of the flora of the study area. Poaceae is the second largest family with 24 species (10%), followed by Asteraceae 16 species (7%), Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae, & Cyperaceae with 11 species each (5%), Lamiaceae with nine species (4%), Convolvulaceae eight species, and Moraceae & Apocyancaeae families with seven species each (Figure 4).

Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau (Alismataceae) collected at Makanur and Somalapura villages from the riparian vegetation of the Tungabhadra River, formed a new generic report to the flora of Karnataka state (Makanur & Kotresha 2022). As for the IUCN Red List status of the collected species, Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa is classified as ‘Near Threatened’. Four endemic species were recorded during the present study: Dicliptera cuneata Nees (endemic to the Western Ghats), Acilepis dendigulensis (DC.) H.Rob. (Peninsular India), Homonoia retusa (Graham ex Wight) Müll.Arg. (Western Ghats of Karnataka), and Phyllanthus lawii J.Graham (Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal). Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb, Mikania micrantha Kunth, and Pontederia crassipes Mart. are invasive alien aquatic species recorded. Crinum viviparum (Lam.) R.Ansari & V.J.Nair, Cryptocoryne spiralis (Retz.) Fisch. ex Wydler, Homonoia retusa (Graham ex Wight) Müll. Arg., Homonoia riparia Lour., Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle, Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine, Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers., Pistia stratiotes L., Pontederia vaginalis Burm.f., Rotula aquatica Lour., Tamarix ericoides Rottler, and Vallisneria spiralis L., are the aquatic plants documented during the study.

CONCLUSION

The riparian zones are the most diverse, dynamic, and complex habitats on Earth. The present study documented a total of 231 indigenous species belonging to 160 genera & 69 families and 76 non-native species belonging to 27 families of flowering plants along the riparian vegetation of four rivers in Haveri District, Karnataka. The highest number of species were recorded from the Tungabhadra River, with 232 species belonging to 61 families, followed by the river Kumadwathi with 181 species. The rivers Dharma and Varada showed a diversity of 156 and 149 species, respectively. Herbaceous flora is dominant in the study area, with 186 species accounting for about 61% of the total flora. Fabaceae was the predominant family, with 36 species representing 11.8% of the total flora.

The riparian vegetation in the study area is facing numerous threats. Key factors contributing to habitat loss and vegetation degradation include agricultural encroachment, overgrazing, the construction of dams and check dams, sand mining, dumping of plastic and chemical waste, invasive species, and tourism activities. Therefore, it is crucial to implement effective conservation programs to protect these vital riparian ecosystems.

Table 1. Checklist of riparian plants along four rivers in Haveri District, Karnataka.

Botanical name	Family	Habit	Dharma	Kumadwathi	Tunga Bhadra	Varada	Nativity
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet	Malvaceae	S	+	+	+	+	I
Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn. ex Benth.	Fabaceae	T	+	+			I
Acalypha indica L.	Euphorbiaceae	H			+	+	I
Acanthospermum hispidum DC.	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+		I
Achyranthes aspera L.	Amaranthaceae	H	+		+		I
Acilepis dendigulensis (DC.) H.Rob.	Asteraceae	H	+		+		I
Acmella radicans (Jacq.) R.K.Jansen	Asteraceae	H					I
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa	Rutaceae	T	+		+	+	I
Aeschynomene indica L.	Fabaceae	H	+				I
Afrohybanthus enneaspermus (L.) Flicker	Violaceae	H			+		I
Ageratum conyzoides L.	Asteraceae	H			+		I
Ageratum houstonianum Mill.	Asteraceae	H	+		+	+	I
Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin	Cornaceae	T			+		I
Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin	Fabaceae	T	+	+			I
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.	Fabaceae	T				+	I
Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb	Amaranthaceae	H			+		Ar
Alternanthera pungens Kunth	Amaranthaceae	H	+	+	+		Am
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC.	Amaranthaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.	Fabaceae	H			+		I
Amaranthus spinosus L.	Amaranthaceae	H		+	+		Tam
Ammannia baccifera L.	Lythraceae	H	+		+		I
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall.	Acanthaceae	H		+		+	I
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze	Lamiaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R.Br. ex Sims	Lamiaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Apluda mutica L.	Poaceae	H	+				Wp
Argemone mexicana L.	Papaveraceae	H			+	+	I
Argyreia cymosa (Roxb.) Sweet	Convolvulaceae	C			+		I
Aristida setacea Retz.	Poaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.	Moraceae	T	+		+		I
Arundo donax L.	Poaceae	H			+	+	I
Asparagus racemosus Willd.	Asparagaceae	S				+	I
Aspidopterys cordata (Wall.) A.Juss.	Malpighiaceae	C	+				I
Azima tetracantha Lam.	Salvadoraceae	S	+	+	+		I
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettstein	Plantaginaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss	Poaceae	T	+	+	+	+	I
Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn.	Lecythidaceae	T	+	+		+	I
Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench	Lamiaceae	H		+	+		I
Bergia ammannioides Roxb.	Elatinaceae	H	+		+		I
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff ex Sherff	Asteraceae	H	+	+		+	I
Blumea axillaris (Lam.) DC.	Asteraceae	H			+	+	I
Boerhavia diffusa L.	Nyctanginaceae	H		+	+		I
Boerhavia erecta L.	Nyctanginaceae	H			+		Tam
Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla	Cyperaceae	H			+	+	I
Bonnaya antipoda (L.) Druce	Linderniaceae	H	+		+		I
Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston	Phyllanthaceae	H		+	+		I
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert	Fabaceae	T	+		+		I
Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce	Capparaceae	S		+		+	I
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.	Fabaceae	S		+	+	+	I
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br.	Apocynaceae	S	+	+	+	+	I
Calotropis procera W.T.Aiton	Apocynaceae	S	+		+		I
Calyptocarpus vialis Less.	Asteraceae	H		+	+		I
Cansjera rheedei Gmelin	Opiliaceae	S		+			I
Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.) Alston	Rubiaceae	S	+	+		+	I
Capparis sepiaria L.	Capparaceae	S	+	+	+	+	I
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.	Sapindaceae	C	+		+		I
Careya arborea Roxb.	Lecythidaceae	T		+		+	Afg–M
Caryota urens L.	Arecaceae	T	+	+			I
Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold	Apocynaceae	S			+		Tam
Cassia fistula L.	Fabaceae	T	+		+		I
Catharanthus pusillus (Murray) G.Don	Apocynaceae	H	+			+	I
Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. & J.Wen	Vitaceae	C	+		+		I
Cenchrus pedicellatus (Trin.) Morrone	Poaceae	H	+				I
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Apiaceae	H	+				I
Centrosema pubescens Benth.	Fabaceae	C		+			I
Chloris barbata Sw.	Poaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Chloris quinquesetica Bhide	Poaceae	H	+	+			I
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob.	Asteraceae	S		+	+		Am
Chrozophora plicata (Vahl) A.Juss. ex Spreng.	Euphorbiaceae	H	+			+	I
Chrozophora rottleri (Geiseler) A.Juss. ex Spreng.	Euphorbiaceae	S		+	+	+	I
Cleome gynandra L.	Cleomaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Cleome viscosa L.	Cleomaceae	H	+	+	+		Taf
Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f.	Lamiaceae	T			+	+	I
Clitoria terneata L.	Fabaceae	C	+	+	+		I
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt	Cucurbitaceae	C		+	+	+	I
Coldenia procumbens L.	Boraginaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott	Araceae	H			+	+	I
Combretum albidum G.Don	Convolvulaceae	C			+	+	I
Commelina benghalensis L.	Commelinaceae	H			+		I
Conyza japonica (Thunb.) Less.	Asteraceae	H		+	+		Afg
Corchorus fascicularis Lam.	Malvaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Crateva magna (Lour.) DC.	Capparaceae	T		+	+		I
Crinum viviparum (Lam.) R.Ansari & V.J.Nair	Amaryllidaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Crotalaria hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd	Fabaceae	H	+		+		I
Crotalaria pallida Aiton	Fabaceae	S		+	+		I
Croton bonplandianus Baill.	Euphorbiaceae	H			+	+	I
Cryptocoryne spiralis (Retz.) Fisch. ex Wydler	Araceae	H	+	+	+		I
Cryptolepis buchananii Roemer & Schultes	Apocynaceae	C		+	+		I
Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br.	Apocynaceae	S		+	+		Mad
Cucumis melo L.	Cucurbitaceae	C		+	+		I
Cucumis sativus L.	Cucurbitaceae	C	+	+		+	I
Cuscuta campestris Yunck.	Convolvulaceae	C			+		I
Cyathocline purpurea (D.Don) Kuntze	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.	Poaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Cyperus difformis L.	Cyperaceae	H			+		I
Cyperus flavidus Retz.	Cyperaceae	H				+	Eu–Au
Cyperus haspan L.	Cyperaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Cyperus iria L.	Cyperaceae	H		+		+	I
Cyperus pumilus L.	Cyperaceae	H	+		+		I
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P.Beauv.	Poaceae	H	+	+	+		Sam
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.	Fabaceae	T		+	+	+	I
Datura discolor Bernh.	Solanaceae	H		+	+		I
Datura ferox L.	Solanaceae	H		+	+	+	Te–Me
Datura stramonium L.	Solanaceae	S		+	+		Nam
Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf.	Fabaceae	T			+	+	Mad
Dentella repens (L.) J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.	Rubiaceae	H	+		+		I
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf	Poaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Dicliptera cuneata Nees	Acanthaceae	H				+	I
Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I.Darbysh.	Acanthaceae	H			+		I
Digera muricata (L.) Mart.	Amaranthaceae	H		+	+		I
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler	Poaceae	H	+	+		+	I
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.	Poaceae	H			+	+	I
Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees	Acanthaceae	H			+		I
Dyschoriste erecta (Burm.f.) Kuntze	Acanthaceae	H	+			+	I
Ecbolium ligustrinum (Vahl) Vollesen	Acanthaceae	H				+	I
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link	Poaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv.	Poaceae	H	+		+	+	Pal
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	Asteraceae	H			+	+	Sta
Eleocharis geniculata (L.) Roem. & Schult.	Cyperaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.	Poaceae	H	+		+		I
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.	Asteraceae	H	+	+		+	I
Enicostema axillare (Poir. ex Lam.) A.Raynal	Gentianaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Enteropogon dolichostachyus (Lag.) Keng	Poaceae	H		+			I
Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees	Poaceae	H	+				I
Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br.	Poaceae	H	+		+		I
Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin.	Poaceae	H	+		+		I
Eragrostis tenella (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.	Poaceae	H	+	+		+	I
Erigeron sumatrensis Retz.	Asteraceae	H	+		+		I
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.	Myrtaceae	T	+	+	+	+	Au
Euphorbia heterophylla L.	Euphorbiaceae	H		+	+	+	Cam
Euphorbia heyneana Sprengel	Euphorbiaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Euphorbia hirta L.	Euphorbiaceae	H	+	+	+	+	Tam
Euphorbia hypericifolia L.	Euphorbiaceae	H					Sta
Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L.	Convolvulaceae	H	+	+	+		Tam
Ficus benghalensis L.	Moraceae	T	+	+	+		I
Ficus heterophylla L.f.	Moraceae	T		+	+	+	I
Ficus hispida L.f.	Moraceae	T			+	+	I
Ficus mollis Vahl	Moraceae	T		+			I
Ficus racemosa L.	Moraceae	T	+	+	+	+	Pa
Ficus religiosa L.	Moraceae	T	+	+	+		I
Fimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) J.Kern	Cyperaceae	H					I
Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth	Cyperaceae	H		+	+		I
Flueggea leucopyrus Willd.	Phyllanthaceae	S					Ch
Fuirena umbellata Rottboell	Cyperaceae	H			+	+	I
Glinus lotoides L.	Molluginaceae	H	+		+	+	I
Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC.	Molluginaceae	H		+	+		I
Gmelina arborea Roxb.	Lamiaceae	T				+	I
Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers.	Asteraceae	H		+	+	+	I
Gomphrena celosioides Mart.	Amaranthaceae	H		+		+	Sam
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+		Af
Grona triflora (L.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi	Fabaceae	H			+		I
Heliotropium indicum L.	Boraginaceae	H			+		Ar
Heliotropium marifolium J.Koenig ex Retz.	Boraginaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Heliotropium ovalifolium Forrsk.	Boraginaceae	H	+	+		+	I
Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth) Nees	Acanthaceae	H	+	+			I
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.	Poaceae	H	+		+		I
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don	Apocynaceae	S	+				I
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.	Ulmaceae	T	+	+	+	+	I
Homonoia retusa (Graham ex Wight) Müll. Arg.	Euphorbiaceae	S	+	+	+	+	I
Homonoia riparia Lour.	Euphorbiaceae	S		+		+	I
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle	Hydrocharitaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine	Acanthaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Indigofera astragalina DC.	Fabaceae	H		+	+		I
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz.	Fabaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Indigofera linnaei Ali	Fabaceae	H			+		I
Ipomoea alba L.	Convolvulaceae	C					Tam
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.	Convolvulaceae	C				+	I
Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet	Convolvulaceae	C		+			Med
Ipomoea carnea (L.) Sweet	Convolvulaceae	S	+		+		Sam
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl.	Convolvulaceae	C	+		+		I
Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Schult.	Convolvulaceae	C	+		+	+	I
Ipomoea triloba L.	Convolvulaceae	C	+	+	+		Tam
Jatropha curcas L.	Euphorbiaceae	S			+	+	I
Jatropha gossypiifolia L.	Euphorbiaceae	H		+	+		Me
Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forssk.) Pers.	Crassulaceae	H	+				I
Lagascea mollis Cav.	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+		Tam
Lantana camara L.	Verbenaceae	S	+	+	+	+	Cam
Lemna minor L.	Araceae	H			+		I
Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees	Poaceae	H		+	+		I
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit	Fabaceae	T		+	+		Tam
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link	Lamiaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Leucas urticifolia R.Br.	Lamiaceae	H	+		+		I
Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau	Alismataceae	H		+	+		Me–Tam
Limonia acidissima L.	Rutaceae	T		+			I
Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines	Linderniaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines	Linderniaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston	Linderniaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara	Onagraceae	H		+	+		I
Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell	Onagraceae	H	+			+	Tam
Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb.	Fabaceae	H			+		Tam
Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen	Euphorbiaceae	T	+	+	+		I
Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke	Malvaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small	Plantaginaceae	H		+	+		Tam
Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka	Poaceae	H	+	+	+		Af
Merremia emarginata (Burm.f.) Hallier.f.	Convolvulaceae	C		+	+	+	Sea
Merremia hederacea Hall.f.	Convolvulaceae	C	+	+		+	I
Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier.f.	Convolvulaceae	C		+			I
Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze	Lamiaceae	H	+	+	+	+	Cam
Microcos paniculata L.	Malvaceae	S				+	I
Mikania micrantha Kunth	Asteraceae	C	+	+	+	+	Sta
Mimosa pudica L.	Fabaceae	H	+		+	+	I
Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.	Rubiaceae	T		+	+		I
Momordica charantia L.	Cucurbitaceae	C		+	+	+	I
Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham.	Rubiaceae	T	+	+			I
Muntingia calabura L.	Muntingiaceae	T			+		Tam
Nicoteba betonica (L.) Lindau	Acanthaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.	Solanaceae	H		+	+	+	Tam
Nymphoides hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze	Menyanthaceae	H	+		+		I
Ocimum americanum L.	Lamiaceae	H	+		+		Pal
Oldenlandia corymbosa L.	Rubiaceae	H		+	+		I
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers.	Hydrocharitaceae	H		+	+		I
Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze	Amaranthaceae	H			+		I
Oxalis corniculata L.	Oxalidiaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R.Br.ex Schult.	Apocynaceae	C		+	+	+	Au
Parthenium hysterophorus L.	Asteraceae	H			+		Am
Paspalum distichum L.	Poaceae	H	+		+	+	Vt
Paspalum vaginatum Sw.	Poaceae	H		+	+		Sta
Passiflora foetida L.	Passifloraceae	C		+	+	+	Tam
Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.	Apocynaceae	C	+		+		I
Persicaria glabra (Willd.)	Polygonaceae	H			+	+	I
Phaulopsis dorsiflora (Retz.) Sant.	Acanthaceae	H		+			I
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene	Verbenaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels	Phyllanthaceae	T		+	+	+	Br
Phyllanthus amarus Schumacher & Thonn.	Phyllanthaceae	H	+		+	+	Am
Phyllanthus lawii J.Graham	Phyllanthaceae	S	+	+	+	+	I
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L.	Phyllanthaceae	H			+	+	I
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.	Phyllanthaceae	S		+	+	+	I
Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Phyllanthaceae	H	+	+			Tea
Physalis angulata L.	Solanaceae	H	+	+	+	+	Tam
Pistia stratiotes L.	Araceae	H		+	+	+	I
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.	Fabaceae	T			+		Tam
Pluchea tomentosa DC.	Asteraceae	H		+	+		I
Plumbago zeylanica L.	Plumbaginaceae	H			+	+	I
Polygonum plebeium R.Br.	Polygonaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre	Fabaceae	T	+	+	+	+	I
Pontederia crassipes Mart.	Pontederiaceae	H			+	+	Sam
Pontederia vaginalis Burm.f.	Pontederiaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Portulaca oleracea L.	Portulacaceae	H	+	+		+	Pa
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce	Fabaceae	T		+	+	+	I
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC	Fabaceae	T	+	+	+	+	Tam
Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britton	Cyperaceae	H		+			I
Ricinus communis L.	Euphorbiaceae	S		+			I
Rotula aquatica Lour.	Boraginaceae	S	+		+		I
Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees	Acanthaceae	H	+			+	I
Saccharum spontaneum L.	Poaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Salix tetrasperma Roxb.	Salicaceae	T	+	+	+	+	I
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.	Fabaceae	T		+	+	+	Sam
Santalum album L.	Santalaceae	T	+	+		+	I
Schoenoplectiella articulata (L.) Lye	Cyperaceae	H			+		I
Scoparia dulcis L.	Plantaginaceae	H	+	+	+	+	Tam
Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb.	Fabaceae	T	+	+		+	I
Senna auriculata	Fabaceae	S		+		+	I
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link	Fabaceae	H	+		+		Tam
Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby	Fabaceae	T	+				Sea
Senna sophera (L.) Roxb.	Fabaceae	S		+	+	+	Tam
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.	Fabaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Sesamum indicum L.	Pedaliaceae	H			+		I
Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.	Fabaceae	S	+			+	I
Setaria geminata (Forssk.) Veldkamp	Poaceae	H	+	+		+	I
Setaria intermedia Roem. & Schult.	Poaceae	H	+	+	+		I
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult.	Poaceae	H		+		+	I
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borssum	Malvaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Solanum nigrum L.	Solanaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Solanum torvum Sw.	Solanaceae	S	+		+		Pan
Solanum virginianum L.	Solanaceae	H	+		+		I
Sonchus asper Hill	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Spermacoce verticillata L.	Rubiaceae	H	+	+	+		Tam
Sphaeranthus indicus L.	Asteraceae	H	+		+		Tam
Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC.	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+	+	Ch
Spilanthes radicans Jacq.	Asteraceae	H					I
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl	Verbenaceae	S			+		Tam
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl	Verbenaceae	H	+	+	+	+	Tam
Stemodia viscosa Roxb.	Plantaginaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Streblus asper Lour.	Moraceae	T		+	+	+	I
Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze	Orobanchaceae	H	+		+		I
Striga densiflora (Benth.) Benth.	Orobanchaceae	H					I
Synadenium grantii Hook.f.	Euphorbiaceae	S		+		+	I
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels	Myrtaceae	T		+	+		I
Tamarindus indica L.	Fabaceae	T	+	+	+	+	Taf
Tamarix ericoides Rottler	Tamaricaceae	S			+	+	I
Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth	Bignoniaceae	S	+			+	I
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.	Combretaceae	T			+	+	I
Terminalia catappa L.	Combretaceae	T	+	+	+	+	I
Terminalia elliptica Willd.	Combretaceae	T		+		+	I
Themeda triandra Forssk.	Poaceae	H	+				I
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson	Menispermaceae	C		+	+		I
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray	Asteraceae	S		+	+		I
Tonningia axillaris (L.) Kuntze	Commelinaceae	H	+		+		I
Trianthema portulacastrum L.	Aizoaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Tribulus terrestris L.	Zygophyllaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehmann	Boraginaceae	H	+		+	+	I
Tridax procumbens L.	Asteraceae	H	+	+	+		Cam
Turnera ulmifolia L.	Turneraceae	H		+	+		I
Typha domingensis Pers.	Typhaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn.	Fabaceae	T	+		+	+	Tam
Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb.	Fabaceae	T	+	+	+	+	I
Vahlia dichotoma (Murray) Kuntze	Vahliaceae	H			+		I
Vallisneria spiralis L.	Hydrocharitaceae	H		+	+	+	I
Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertner	Rhamnaceae	S	+				I
Verbascum coromandelianum (Vahl) Hub.-Mor.	Scrophulariaceae	H	+		+	+	I
Vincetoxicum indicum (Burm.f.) Mabb.	Apocynaceae	C		+	+	+	I
Vitex leucoxylon L.f.	Lamiaceae	T	+	+		+	I
Vitex negundo L.	Lamiaceae	T		+	+		Ja
Volkameria inermis L.	Lamiaceae	S	+		+		I
Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Roem. & Schult.) Steud.	Rubiaceae	S	+	+		+	I
Xanthium strumarium L.	Asteraceae	S			+		Sam
Zaleya decandra (L.) Burm.f.	Aizoaceae	H	+	+	+	+	I
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn.	Rhamnaceae	T			+	+	I

C—Climber | H—Herb | S—Shrub | T—Tree | +—Present | Af—Africa | Afg—Afganistan | Am—America | Ar—Argentina | Au—Australia | Br—Brazil | Cam—Central America | Ch—China | Eu—Europe | I—Indigenous | Ja—Japan | M—Malyasia | Mad—Madgaskar | Me—Mexico | Med—Mediterranean | Nam—North America | Pa—Pakistan | Pal—Paleotropics | Pan—Pantropical | Sam—South America | Sta—Subtropical America | Sea—Southeast Asia | Taf—Tropical Africa | Tam—Tropical America | Te—Texas | Tea—Tropical East Asia | Vt—Vietnam | W—West Pacific.

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