Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 February 2024 | 16(2): 24795–24803
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8582.16.2.24795-24803
#8582 | Received 09 June 2023 | Final received 13 January 2024
| Finally accepted 30 January 2024
Utilization of Afzelia africana
Sm. ex Pers. (Magnoliopsida: Fabales:
Fabaceae) in Nigeria and its implications for conservation
Samuel Oloruntoba
Bamigboye 1, Muhali
Olaide Jimoh 2, Falilat Abeni Lawal 3,
Zainab Temitope Osiyemi 4, Charles Petrus
Laubscher 5 & Learnmore Kambizi 6
1,2,3,4 Department of Plant Science,
Faculty of Science, Olabisi Onabanjo University 2002, Ago-Iwoye,
Nigeria.
5,6 Department of Horticultural
Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
Bellville, 7535, South Africa.
1 reachtoba@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 moajay006@gmail.com, 3
falilatabeni@gmail.com, 4 osiyemizainab3@gmail.com, 5
laubscherc@cput.ac.za, 6 kambizil@cput.ac.za
Editor: Shiny Mariam Rehel,
Keystone Foundation, Kotagiri, India.
Date of publication: 26 February 2024 (online & print)
Citation: Bamigboye, S.O., M.O. Jimoh, F.A.
Lawal, Z.T. Osiyemi, C.P. Laubscher & L. Kambizi (2024). Utilization of Afzelia
africana Sm. ex Pers. (Magnoliopsida:
Fabales: Fabaceae) in Nigeria and its implications
for conservation. Journal of Threatened Taxa 16(2): 24795–24803. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8582.16.2.24795-24803
Copyright: © Bamigboye et al. 2024. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula
University of Technology.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Samuel Oloruntoba Bamigboye holds a PhD and his expertise is in plant conservation focusing on extinction risk in African threatened endemic plant taxa. He is currently a lecturer in Nigeria. His current research in Nigeria focuses on plant people
interface and the conservation implications. Falilat Abeni Lawal just completed bachelors degree in plant science at Olabisi Onabanjo University in Nigeria. She is interested in furthering her career in plant science and environmental management related
discipline. Zainab Temitope Osiyemi currently holds a bachelor degree in plant science. She is interested in research relating to human uses of biological resources. Charles P. Laubscher holds a PhD as a professor of horticultural sciences. His research field is aligned with ecological conservation of threatened species and cultivation studies of wild edible species in aid of food security in drought-stricken regions. His has extensive publication and postgraduate supervision records and active in numerous international collaborative agreements. Dr Muhali Jimoh is a
botanist with a special interest in plant physiology and metabolomics. Dr Jimoh is a lecturer in the Department of Plant Science, at Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria, and external supervisor to the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa. He
has supervised four master’s students to completion. Prof Learnmore Kambizi is
a professor in Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa. His research interests is in utilization and conservation of medicinal plants on a local and international level. He is the first director of African Centre for Herbal Research based in Nigeria.
Author contributions: Samuel Oloruntoba Bamigboye designed the project, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript and also assisted with the survey. Muhali Olaide Jimoh did the data analysis and proof reading. Falilat Abeni Lawal lead the survey team and documented information from the respondents, Zainab Temitope Osiyemi assisted in collecting data from the respondent, Charles Petrus Laubscher assisted in editing the manuscript, Learnmore Kambizi assisted in final editing of the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: We wish to Acknowledge
Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape
Peninsula University of Technology for providing support for the payment of the
Article processing Charges for this study.
Abstract: This study investigated the
ethnobotanical uses of Afzelia africana Sm. ex Pers., a threatened tree species
in Nigeria to determine the impact of uses of this species on the risk of its
extinction. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted by means of semi-structured
questionnaires with the local community called Ijebu Igbo in Ogun state of
Nigeria and a total of 60 respondents were interviewed from this community.
Herbalists, artisans, Islamic scholars, traders, and retirees were interviewed
to document their knowledge of the uses of A. africana.
This study revealed that there are different uses of A. africana,
among which its spiritual and medicinal uses were the most dominant. An
unsustainable harvest of A. africana for these
uses will aggravate the decline of its population, thereby increasing the risk
of extinction. This study recommends local awareness of the indigenous people
of possible ways this species can be utilized in a sustainable manner to
prevent its extinction.
Keywords: Anthropogenic forces,
biodiversity loss, endangered species, ethnobotany, extinction risk, indigenous
knowledge, overharvesting, population decline, traditional knowledge, threats,
INTRODUCTION
Utilization and sustainability of
biological resources are to be given high level consideration in controlling
the risk of plant extinction because anthropogenic activities have been a major
player in the subject of biodiversity conservation (Marchese 2015). Human
craves to satisfy their needs in terms of food, medicine, shelter, clothing,
and horticulture have increased decline in plant species globally (Haines-Young
& Potschin 2010; Pimm 2021). And if these needs
for resources are not effectively managed, the damage to global biodiversity
might be beyond control in decades to come.
Perspectives of the indigenous
knowledge holders is important in sustainable utilization and protection of
biological resources (Cuni-Sanchez et al. 2016;
Mensah et al. 2017). The interaction of local people with their natural
environment is a factor that affects biodiversity conservation (Houdanon et al. 2018; Rasethe et
al. 2022). Several plant species are sources of ecosystem services for many
communities and the perception of the beneficiaries of these services is
extremely important for the sustainability of these species (Brockerhoff et al. 2017). Some economic uses of plant
resources in communities include timber production, medicine, firewood, and
charcoal, and these are causing habitat degradation and gradual increase in
extinction risk of many plant taxa (Diaz et al. 2019). Climate regulation, soil
and environmental regulation are some of the ecological importance of
indigenous trees in communities where the species exists (Byabashaija
et al. 2004). Lack of sustainable utilization of species of trees will promote
decline of their populations and this will further result in loss of ecosystem
services (Jiao et al. 2019).
Afzelia africana
(African
Mahogany) is a tree species of high economic and ecological importance.
It belongs to the family of Fabaceae (Oshingboye et
al. 2017). It is highly desired for timber production (Balima
et al. 2022), and currently listed as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List (Hills
2020; Bamigboye et al. 2022). Anthropogenic factors
identified as a threat to this species are timber production, medicinal uses,
livestock feeding and habitat destruction (Bamigboye
et al. 2022). There are excessive threats to natural distribution of Afzelia africana in
Africa due to international timber trade of this species (Mensah et al. 2014; Assogbadjo et al. 2017). The trade of this species as brown
wood transcends Africa to Asia, Europe and the United States of America (Biara et al. 2021).
Afzelia africana is a widely harvested species
for many ethnobotanical uses. It is being used for medicinal purposes to treat
many ailments locally which include headache, Malaria, ulcer, chronic cough,
tooth ache, hemorrhoids, stomach ache and Meningitis (Balima
et al. 2018; Houehanou et al. 2023). The
leaves are source of food for humans and livestock (Nzekwe
et al. 2016; Avornyo et al. 2018). The main aim of
this study is to conduct ethnobotanical surveys in a local community called
Ijebu igbo in Nigeria to determine the perception of
local people on the utilization of Afzelia africana. This is to determine the risk of extinction
of this species based on the local uses and also make recommendations on the sustainability
of this species in Nigeria. The specific objectives of this study are as
follows: (i) to determine the diverse utilization of Afzelia africana and
to understand how this utilization will increase the risk of extinction in a
community in Ogun state Nigeria, (ii) to understand the usage of parts of this
plant species that are heavily harvested by the local people to meet several
human demands in the community where this study was conducted, (iii) to
determine how the harvesting of different parts of Afzellia
africana will affect its sustainability and
regeneration potential, and (iv) to make recommendations on how the perspective
of the local people can be integrated into plans and policies that will protect
and minimize the risk of extinction of Afzelia
africana.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
This study was conducted in Ijebu
Igbo (Coordinates: 6.9792° N, 3.9980° E), Ogun-State, Nigeria. The natural
vegetation is predominately deciduous forest (Bayewu
et al. 2014). Ijebu Igbo in Ogun State Nigeria has an average temperature
between 21oC–32oC (Bayewu et
al. 2014). There are many indigenous people residing in this area. The main
livelihood option in the region is timber harvesting (Olanipekun
2022). Majority of the natural forests have been converted to several farmlands
and heavy deforestation occurs in this area because of timber trade.
Data collection
A semi structured questionnaires
were administered to 60 people in the study area on the uses of Afzelia africana in
their local community. The justification of the sample size is that only people
who could identify the plant and gave their consent to be interviewed were the
only respondents captured in this study. This survey was conducted in Yoruba,
the local language of the indigenous people in this community. Photographs of
the species were taken along during the survey for identification and some of
the indigenous knowledge holders volunteered to go and identify the species in
the wild. Afzelia africana
is called Apa in this community. All the
respondents identified this species through this local name.
Data analysis
Descriptive statistics was used
to analyze the data. Quantifications was done in percentages in which the
percentages of respondents who mentioned different use categories was
determined. The percentages that mentioned the parts of Afzelia
africana being used for several purposes was
calculated. The percentage of respondents that mentioned if the species is rare
or not was calculated.
Results
The highest percentage of the
respondents mentioned that Afzelia africana is used for spiritual purpose. This implies
that this plant species is common in this community for its spiritual uses
(Figure 2). The spiritual uses mentioned includes warding off spiritual
attacks, spiritual protection from evil spirits, money rituals and charm for
having good luck. The parts used for spiritual purpose are the leaves, stem,
bark, roots and the seeds.
After the spiritual purpose the
medicinal uses were the second most mentioned by the respondents (Figure 2).
The medicinal uses mentioned are wound healing, easing childbirth, treating eye
infection, gonorrhea, enhancing male sexual performance, treating lap
inflammation and curing food poison. This revealed there is a wide range of
medicinal uses of this plant species with the bark, root, leaves and seeds used
for various medicinal purposes (Table 1; Figure 3).
The seed of Afzelia
africana is a source of food for human
consumption as reported in this study (Table 1; Figure 3). It is being uses locally
for soup making and added to other food items for human consumption. Also,
there are other uses which include furniture making, timber production and as a
source of firewood mentioned by the respondents (Figure 2). Individuals of this
species are taken out completely for timber production through the use of the
industrial saw. The stem cut down are broken into smaller pieces with axe for
producing firewood. This is a common practice throughout the year round.
Because individuals being removed for timber production and firewood in the
wild are not being replaced by planting, this practice becomes unsustainable.
This contributes to the population decline of this species.
Half of the respondents believed
that Afzelia africana
is becoming rare within the community (Figure 4). Although a few respondents do
not know whether it is rare or not but the result can
still be justified that there is possibility of increase in decline of the
population of this species within this community.
DISCUSSION
Harvesting of Afzelia
africana for spiritual purpose
There are many spiritual beliefs
that are being attached to plants (Gupta 1971, 1996; Negi 2005). Many cultures
around the world believe that plants have several spiritual uses (Kandari et al. 2014; Kawa 2016; Bamigboye
et al. 2017; Aziz et al. 2020). The main use category mentioned by most of the
respondents in this study was the use of Afzelia
africana for spiritual purpose (Figure 2). A
study conducted by Balima et al. (2018) on
ethnobotany of Afzelia africana
in Burkina Faso revealed that after fodder and medicine, the most common uses
of this species were the use for spiritual purpose. This revealed in a
community in Burkina Faso, Afzelia africana is known for spiritual uses but not as common
as medicinal and fodder while in Ijebu Igbo a small community in Nigeria where
this study was conducted Afzelia africana is more popular for spiritual uses than uses
for medicine and fodder (Figure 2). Studies have shown that certain communities
preserve some plant species due to some spiritual perception attached to the
plant species (Shukla & Gardner 2006; Irakiza et
al. 2016; Rankoana 2016; Yeshi
et al. 2021). Also, the study by Balima et al. (2018)
further revealed that Afzelia africana is protected in the traditional agroforest
systems in Burkina Faso due to the spiritual belief attached to this plant.
This implies that the spiritual perception of this plant species might
contribute to the local conservation of this species.
Harvesting of Afzelia
africana for medicinal uses
Plant harvest for medicinal
purposes keeps generating concerns in biodiversity conservation (Jimoh et al. 2023). Continuous harvest of threatened
species for medicinal uses will keep aggravating the decline of their
populations (Williams et al. 2013; Bamigboye et al.
2017; van Wyk & Prinsloo 2018). Harvest for
medicinal uses have been identified as a threat to Afzelia
africana (Bamigboye et
al. 2022). Next to spiritual purpose, harvest for medicinal uses was the most
mentioned by the respondents in this study (Figure 2). Continuous harvest of
this species for medicinal purpose will increase the risk of extinction of this
species if not done in a sustainable manner.
Bark harvesting of Afzelia africana
Bark harvesting have been a
practice responsible for plant species extinction (Bamigboye
et al. 2018). Bark harvesting can lead to death of individuals of tree species
and it can result into poor regeneration of tree species (Tshisikhawe
et al. 2012). Nacoulma et al. (2016) revealed that
bark harvesting of Afzelia africana reduced its fruit production, thereby
affecting its reproduction. This study identified bark harvesting of Afzelia africana
for spiritual and medicinal purpose as common practice in this community where
this study was conducted (Table 1; Figure 3). The practice of bark harvesting
will reduce the regeneration potential of this species if they are not done in
a sustainable way.
Harvesting of Afzelia
africana for timber production
Harvest of tree taxa for timber
production poses threats to the survival of many tree species and it has
exterminated many populations of tree taxa hence increase their risk of
extinction (Edward et al. 2014; Bont et al. 2020).
The economic viability of this adventure has made many people defer regulations
and engage in indiscriminate harvest of so many trees which is contributing to
biodiversity loss (Frey et al. 2021). From ecological perspective, arboreal
species that survive based on the presence of these trees have to migrate
through ecological corridors due to habitat fragmentation (Arroyo-Rodríguez
& Mandujano 2009). The susceptibility of these
species to habitat fragmentation is due to the practice of removing individuals
of tree species from the wild for timber production. Some studies have reported
Afzelia africana
being excessively harvested for timber production and also project this
practice as the main threats to this species (Mensah et al. 2014; Assogbadjo et al. 2017; Biara et
al. 2020). In a bit of a contrary, this study found this plant to be more desired
in Ijebu Igbo, Ogun-State, Nigeria where this study was conducted for spiritual
and medicinal purposes more than that for timber production (Figure 2). This
implies that there may be less popularity of this species for timber production
in this area or the spiritual belief attached to the plant might have
restricted the practice of harvesting this species for timber production.
Perception on rarity of Afzelia africana
Perception on rarity is extremely
important in biodiversity. Species perceived to be rare can become target of
harvest for economic gains thereby increasing their risk of population decline
(Courchamp et al. 2006; Hall et al. 2008). Online and
offline resources consulted on this subject could not reveal that Afzelia africana is
currently protected in Nigeria. Based on the current perception on the rarity
of the species (Figure 4) in this study, it is recommended that Afzelia africana
should be protected in Nigeria.
Conclusion
This study revealed that several
parts of Afzelia africana
are being harvested for different purposes which might keep declining the
populations of this species in the wild. Intensive harvest over time will
further aggravate the risk of extinction of Afzelia
africana in Nigeria. This study recommends that
further studies on population ecology of Afzelia
africana should be carried out to determine the
current status of this species in terms of conservation in Nigeria. There is a
need for creating local awareness among the indigenous people on the need to
conserve this species. Prohibition of indiscriminate harvest of Afzelia africana
should be enacted by local conservation authorities. Local cultivation of Afzelia africana
within the region of this study should be encouraged to prevent extirpation of
this species and also improve its regeneration in Nigeria.
Table 1. Demographic
information on the respondents, the use categories of Afzelia
africana mentioned, parts used mentioned and
perception of rarity of the respondent regarding the species.
|
|
Gender |
Occupation |
Age |
Uses |
Part used |
Is the plant rare or not? |
|
1 |
Male |
Carpenter |
54 |
Furniture, medicine |
Stem, leaves |
Not rare |
|
2 |
Male |
Unknown |
49 |
Firewood |
Stem |
Not rare |
|
3 |
Male |
Farmer |
61 |
Cooked as soup, medicine
(leaves boiled and administered orally to improve men sexual performance) |
Seed, leaves |
Not rare |
|
4 |
Female |
Market woman |
48 |
Cooked as soup, medicine |
Leaves, seed |
Not rare |
|
5 |
Female |
Market woman |
39 |
Cooked as soup, medicine |
Leaves, seed |
Rare |
|
6 |
Male |
Unknown |
62 |
Spiritual purpose, medicine
(Gonorrhea) |
Leaves, seed |
Unknown |
|
7 |
Male |
Driver |
54 |
Spiritual purpose, medicine
(Roots for treating wound) |
Bark, root |
Not rare |
|
8 |
Female |
Trader |
59 |
Cooked as soup |
Seed |
Not rare |
|
9 |
Male |
Trader |
49 |
Medicine (Gonorrhea), spiritual
purpose |
Leaves, bark |
Rare |
|
10 |
Male |
Trader |
67 |
Furniture, cooked as soup |
Seed, stem |
Rare |
|
11 |
Male |
Farmer |
68 |
Cooked as soup |
Seed |
Not rare |
|
12 |
Male |
Herbalist |
51 |
Spiritual purpose, medicine
(Gonorrhea) |
Bark, leaves |
Not rare |
|
13 |
Male |
Pastor/farmer |
63 |
Spiritual purpose, medicine
(bark is boiled and administered to babies orally to strengthen their bones, roots used
for treating unknown illness) |
Seed, bark, root |
Rare |
|
14 |
Male |
Herbalist |
58 |
Spiritual purpose |
Seed, leaves |
Not rare |
|
15 |
Male |
Herbalist |
61 |
Spiritual purpose, medicine
(roots use for enhancing sexual performance in men) |
Bark, seed, leaves, root |
Rare |
|
16 |
Male |
Herbalist |
56 |
Spiritual purpose, Medicine
(roots used for treating wounds) |
Leaves, root |
Not rare |
|
17 |
Female |
Trader |
53 |
Cooking |
Seed |
Unknown |
|
18 |
Female |
Trader |
47 |
Cooking, medicine |
Seed, leaves |
Rare |
|
19 |
Male |
Drummer |
55 |
Furniture |
Stem |
Not rare |
|
20 |
Male |
Driver |
62 |
Medicine (roots used for
treating wounds) |
Roots |
Unknown |
|
21 |
Female |
Trader |
Unknown |
Cooking |
Seed |
Rare |
|
22 |
Male |
Unknown |
70 |
Spiritual purpose |
Seed, stem |
Rare |
|
23 |
Female |
Trader |
45 |
Cooking |
Seed |
Not rare |
|
24 |
Female |
Trader |
56 |
Cooking, medicine |
Seed, leaves |
Not rare |
|
25 |
Male |
Herbalist, Mechanic |
40 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark, root |
Rare |
|
26 |
Female |
Herbalist |
80 |
Spiritual purpose, medicine
(healing of eyes) |
Seed, |
Not rare |
|
27 |
Male |
Farmer |
58 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Not rare |
|
28 |
Male |
Herbalist |
55 |
Medicine (for curing poison) |
Bark |
Rare |
|
29 |
Male |
Herbalist |
55 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
30 |
Male |
Farmer |
58 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark, seed |
Rare |
|
31 |
Male |
Herbalist |
85 |
Medicine (Wound healing, lap
inflammation cure) |
Seed |
Rare |
|
32 |
Male |
Herbalist |
54 |
Spiritual purpose, furniture |
Bark |
Rare |
|
33 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
45 |
Spiritual purpose, furniture |
Leaves, bark |
Not rare |
|
34 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
40 |
Spiritual purpose |
Leaves |
Rare |
|
35 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
55 |
Spiritual purpose |
Stem, |
Not rare |
|
36 |
Male |
Farmer |
56 |
Spiritual purpose |
Seed, bark |
Not rare |
|
37 |
Male |
Herbalist |
50 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
38 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
42 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
39 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
40 |
Spiritual purpose |
Leaves, roots |
Rare |
|
40 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
45 |
Medicine (Ease childbirth) |
Seed, leaves, root |
Rare |
|
41 |
Male |
Herbalist |
50 |
Spiritual purpose |
Root, leaves |
Rare |
|
42 |
Male |
Herbalist |
60 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Unknown |
|
43 |
Male |
Herbalist |
55 |
Spiritual purpose, Medicine
(aphrodisiac) |
Root |
Unknown |
|
44 |
Male |
Herbalist |
50 |
Spiritual purpose |
Seed |
Unknown |
|
45 |
Male |
Herbalist |
65 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Unknown |
|
46 |
Male |
Farmer/ Herbalist |
56 |
Furniture, medicine
(aphrodisiac), spiritual purpose |
Seed, bark, root |
Unknown |
|
47 |
Female |
Traditional nurse |
54 |
Spiritual purpose |
Leaves |
Rare |
|
48 |
Male |
Trader |
65 |
Spiritual purpose |
Leaves, roots, bark |
Rare |
|
49 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
48 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
50 |
Female |
Herbalist |
58 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
51 |
Male |
Herbalist |
45 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Not rare |
|
52 |
Female |
Trader |
40 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
53 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
50 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Not rare |
|
54 |
Female |
Trader |
56 |
Medicine (Rheumatism) |
Bark |
Rare |
|
55 |
Female |
Trader |
55 |
Cooking |
Seed |
Not rare |
|
56 |
Male |
Carpenter |
42 |
Firewood |
Stem |
Not rare |
|
57 |
Male |
Herbalist |
60 |
Spiritual purpose |
Bark |
Rare |
|
58 |
Male |
Islamic scholar |
48 |
Spiritual purpose |
Seed |
Rare |
|
59 |
Male |
Carpenter |
Unknown |
Timber production |
Stem |
Rare |
|
60 |
Female |
Trader |
50 |
Timber production, medicine |
Stem, root, leaves |
Rare |
For
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