Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 October 2023 | 15(10): 23952–23976
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8478.15.10.23952-23976
#8478 | Received 11 April 2023 | Final received 16 August 2023 | Finally
accepted 11 October 2023
Seasonality, diversity, and
forest type associations of macro moths (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Heterocera) in
the Shiwalik landscape of northern India and its conservation implications
Arun Pratap Singh 1 & Lekhendra 2
1,2 Entomology, Forest Protection
Division, Forest Research Institute (ICFRE), P.O. New Forest, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248006,
India.
1 ranoteaps@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 lekhendrasahu750@gmail.com
Editor: Jatishwor Singh Irungbam, Ceske
Budejovice, Czech Republic. Date of publication: 26 October
2023 (online & print)
Citation: Singh, A.P. & Lekhendra (2023). Seasonality, diversity,
and forest type associations of macro moths (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Heterocera)
in the Shiwalik landscape of northern India and its conservation implications. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(10): 23952–23976. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8478.15.10.23952-23976
Copyright: © Singh & Lekhendra 2023. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing
adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun (Project
No. FRI-669/FPD-06).
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Arun Pratap Singh, Head of Forest
Protection Division, FRI is a forest entomologist by profession with over 30
years of research experience in ICFRE. He has worked all country mainly in the
Himalayan region of India and Bhutan. His area of interest is biodiversity conservation with special reference to lepidoptera (moths and
butterflies); insect ecology & management of mainly defoliators and wood
borers in western Himalaya temperate forests (oaks, poplars and conifers). He has published three books and over 100 research papers. Besides, he is also keen ornithologist pursuing
self-funded studies and fellowships being member of the Species Survival
Commission of IUCN; Birdlife International/IUCN Red List authority and
reviewing expert for the Indian region. Lekhendra is a Ph.D research scholar at FRI Deemed to
be University at Dehradun with keen interest in taxonomy and ecology of
Himalayan moths.
Author contributions: The first author carried out the sampling
surveys in the field, photographed, identified moths,
carried out data analysis and wrote the paper. The second author assisted the
first author in sampling surveys, collected, pinned and preserved moth
specimens and identified them, compiled the data and species list.
Acknowledgements: The present study is part of a
research project entitled ‘Species diversity of heterocera (macro-moths) across
the Shiwalik landscape of northern India’ being carried out at Forest Research
Institute, Dehradun by
the first author. The authors are thankful to the director, FRI for providing
the necessary facilities to carry out the above study. The authors are also
thankful to the state forest departments of Uttarakhand, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh for providing logistics during the field surveys.
The authors are also thankful to Gaurav Chand Ramola, Ram Ajeet Chaudhary, and
Ashirwad Tripathy (JRFs & research scholars) for their help in sampling of
moths during field surveys from time to time.
Abstract: A study was carried out to
evaluate the seasonal diversity of macro moths across different forest
sub-types occurring in the Shiwalik landscape of northern India, mainly
Uttarakhand and adjoining states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and
Haryana. Forty-three field surveys of 59 days were carried out from July
2020 to October 2022 using stratified random sampling in each of the 19
selected study sites. Sampling surveys revealed 321 species of moths belonging
to 19 families and 49 sub-families. These new range extensions from central
Himalaya and northeastern India indicate the affinity of moths found in the
northern Indian Shiwaliks with that of the Oriental region. Seasonal trend of
species richness showed two annual peaks, with the first peak occurring in
August followed by a smaller peak in October, while the seasonal abundance of
moth species was maximum in July followed by a smaller peak in September.
One-hundred-and-forty species occurred only during the ‘monsoon’ season
indicating their seasonality, univoltine habit and short flight periods in
these tropical forests. Species richness of moths correlated positively with
relative humidity (r2 = 0.100; p = 0.0142; n = 59). The most
dominant family was Erebidae (95 species) followed by Geometriidae (61),
Crambidae (72), and Noctuidae (28), respectively. Maximum number of moth
species were sampled in forest sub-type (i) 3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest,
followed by (ii) 5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest, (iii) 3C/C2c Moist
Tarai Sal Forest, iv) 5B/C1a Dry Shiwalik Sal Forest, respectively. The study
also revealed changing moth communities along with the vegetation structure in
the Shiwaliks from east (Nandhaur Willife Sanctaury in Uttarakhand bordering
Nepal) to west (Simbalbara National Park in Himachal Pradesh,India)
across the landscape. The moth communities of (i) 3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal
Forest & (ii) 3C/C2c Moist Tarai Sal Forest being different from that of
(iii) 5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest, and (iv) 5B/C1a Dry Shiwalik
Sal Forest. Besides, six new range extensions into Shiwaliks of northern India
from central Nepal and northeastern India, namely: Chlorozancla falcatus
(Butler, 1889) (Geometridae); Cynaeda dichroalis (Hampson, 1903), Dichocrocis
pyrrhalis (Walker, 1859) & Glyphodes canthusalis Walker, 1859
(Crambidae); and Acropteris iphiata (Guenée, 1857) (Uranidae) were
recorded.
Keywords: Crambidae, Erebidae, Geometridae,
lunar phase, moist Shiwalik Sal forest, monsoon, Mundiapani, Noctuidae,
protected area, Shorea robusta, Simbalbara, relative humidity.
Introduction
Shiwaliks are the oldest of the
mountain ranges that stretch over ~2,400 km from the Indus River in Jammu & Kashmir in the
north-west eastwards close to the Brahmaputra river, located between 28.9544 0N
& 34.1800 0E and 73.4900 0N & 80.23972 0E,
spanning the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Shiwaliks are also regarded as a distinct zoo-geographical sub-region from the
Himalaya and represent the lower or sub-Himalaya with elevation ranging
244–1,500 m, with diverse forest types, i.e., Moist Shiwalik Sal Shorea
robusta forests, Dry Shiwalik Sal forests, scrubland, raus and grassy banks
in northern India (Sivakumar et al. 2010). The Shiwalik region in northwestern
part of India is mainly forested and includes many protected areas rich in
wildlife, i.e., Rajaji National Park, Corbett Tiger Reserve, Sonanadi Wildlife
Sanctuary, & Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttarakhand state; Kalesar
Wildlife Sanctuary & the Morni Hills in Haryana; Simbalbara Wildlife
Sanctuary in Sirmaur district of Himachal Pradesh; and Sukhna Wildlife
Sanctuary in Punjab (Yadav et al. 2015). In recent years, increasing
anthropogenic activity such as rapid urbanization and conversion of forest land
into agriculture, introduction of exotics, grazing by livestock and lopping of
trees by the Gujjar communities—the main inhabitants of this region has caused
excessive deforestation and affected the fragile landscape of Shiwaliks which
is today witnessing extensive soil erosion in non-forested and degraded tracts
that threatens its very existence including that of the native fauna of the
landscape (Kukal & Sur 1992; Sharma & Arora 2015).
Lepidoptera is an order of insects that includes moths (Heterocera) and butterflies’
(Rhopalocera) that are one of the main phytophagus groups, encompassing
as estimated 140,000–157,000 extant species worldwide (Nieukerken 2011; Lees
& Zilli 2019), with moths constituting 89% of the known lepidoptera while
the rest are butterflies. “Macro-lepidoptera” or “Macro-moth” which is a
traditional, non-systematic division of Lepidoptera, largely representing moth
families which have fewer traits of the earliest members of the order and tend
to include those families with large body size and are usually easier to
identify (https://en.wikipedia.org/). Macro-moths have been today used as
indicators of environment quality as they depict diversity of plants and health
of an ecosystems and may help in conserving microhabitats (Kitching et al.
2002; Summerville 2004). These facts make them interesting organisms for
studying their ecology and diversity. They have also been found to be climate
change indicators in studies conducted in western countries (Shubhalaxmi 2018).
The moth diversity of Shiwaliks
of northern India has been poorly documented. Earlier studies in the region
concentrated mainly in the higher western Himalayan ranges rather than the
Shiwaliks or focused on particular groups/ families of moths or are not comprehensive
in nature, i.e., Dehradun hills (Roonwal et al. 1956); Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve in Kumaon (Arora et al. 1977); Nainital area in Kumaon
(Smetacek 1994, 2008, 2009, 2011). More recently, Sanyal et al. (2013) and
Uniyal et al. (2013) studied the entomofauna of the Gangotri landscape, listing
468 moth species. Recently, Sondhi & Sondhi (2016) have compiled a
checklist of 248 species of moths from selected areas of Mussoorie and
adjoining foothills of Dehradun, excluding the Shiwaliks. 502 species have been
listed from New Forest Campus in Dehradun valley (670 m in the tropical moist
deciduous forest zone, excluding Shiwalik ranges), in Uttarakhand since 1956
(Singh & Lekhendra 2022). Twenty-four species of Lymantridae have been
listed from Punjab and 54 species of the family Arctiidae (Kaleka 2010, 2015).
While Kumar et al. (2018) have listed 36 geometrid species, Kirti et al. (2007)
and Kumar et al. (2015) have reported over 20 noctuid species of moths, all
from Chir Pine Pinus roxburghii forest areas of Himachal Pradesh state
(Bilaspur, Shimla, & Solan districts). However, none of the authors gave
the precise location of any of their records and most of them do not fall in
the Shiwalik ranges.
Therefore, the present study was
undertaken to evaluate the diversity and seasonality of macro moths across
different forest habitats in the Shiwalik landscape of northern India, up till
the point which forms the western most limit on the globe (30.5042 0N
& 77.2430 0E) in the distribution range of tropical moist
deciduous Sal forests (a forest type typical in the northern aspect of the
Shiwalik mountain ranges), i.e., Simbalbara National Park/Suketi in Himachal
Pradesh State.
Methods
Sampling
Seasonal sampling surveys were
carried out to collect data on species richness and abundance of moths from 19
sites across the Shiwalik ranges from east to west in four northern Indian
states (mainly in Uttarakhand and adjoining parts of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, and Haryana states; Figure 1) from July 2020 to October 2022. Surveys
were conducted during different seasons of the year, i.e., pre-monsoon
(April–June), monsoon (July–August), post monsoon (September–November), when
moths are in flight here except in winter and early spring (December, January,
February& March) when moths undergo hibernation in the northern India. A
total of 59 days of individual sampling surveys (43 tours) were carried out
each night from 1900–2200 h in these sites (Figure 1, Image 1, Table 1), as
this is the time most of the moths are attracted to artificial light just after
sunset. It was noted that moth species composition on moth screens altered less
after mid night. We used CFL—compact fluorescent lamps (27 Watt; 220–240 Volts;
Cool Daylight (6,500–7,500K); Light Color: White; 65 Lumen; Philips) hung
vertically in front of a white canvas cloth as a moth screen (180 x 120mm) to
attract moths (Raimondo et al. 2003). Data was collected on the date of
sampling, GPS coordinates of each sampling site, moth species recorded along
with the number of individuals present on the moth screen, and the temperature
and relative humidity at the time of sampling. Most of the species sampled were
photographed live; besides, vouchers specimens were also collected for those
species that could not be identified in the field (Table 1). Forest sub-types
covered during sampling in these 19 sites were (i) 3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal
Forest, (ii) 5B/C1a Dry Shiwalik Sal Forest, (iii) 5B/C2Northern Dry Mixed
Deciduous Forest, and (iv) 3C/C2c Moist Tarai Sal Forest (Champion & Seth 1968)(Image 2, Table1).
Data analysis was carried out
using the programme ‘Bio Diversity Professional Version 2’ to draw inferences
on (i) alpha diversity – Shannon, species accumulation curve, rarefaction; (ii)
beta diversity – species richness estimators (Chao2; Jacknife1 &
Jacknife2); (iii) multivariate analysis (correspondence analysis & cluster
analysis; correlation coefficient), for individual sites and seasons.
Similarity index for moths species sampled in
different forest types was calculated using Jaccard coefficient (Jaccard 1901).
Results
Sampling surveys revealed a total
of 321 species of macro moths (Appendix I) belonging to 19 families and 49
subfamilies. Amongst these, the family Erebidae (95 species) was the most dominant
followed by Crambidae, Geometridae, Noctuidae, Limacodidae, and others,
respectively, in terms of number of species (Figure 2).
Species richness
The species accumulation curve
(Figure 4) for the entire sampling period suggests that new species were constantly
being added till the last sampling and there was still a potential to add many
more species when the sampling stopped.
The rarefaction plot for
individual sites (Figure 4) suggests that sampling for species was
comprehensive for only few sites, i.e., ‘Simbalbara’ (60 species) and ‘Darpur’
(20 species) most of the new species were added initially but later only a few
species were added until the last sampling. While in Mundiapani, Timli, and
Karvapani, new species were added continuously and the
plot reached a higher species number (above 80) till the last sampling. These
sites thus hold greater potential of adding more species to the list. However,
sampling at Kalesar, Haridwar Chorgaliya, and Asarori was less frequent and
recorded around only 40 species early till the end. In rest of the sites
sampling was done only once and only a few species were recorded and more
sampling effort was needed in these sites to arrive at any estimate of the
number of moth species occurring there. Species richness estimators indicate
higher levels of species richness than current number of 321 species during 59
samplings (Chao 2—504; Jacknife 1—473 & Jacknife 2—562) in the study area.
Seasonality
Seasonal trend of species
richness showed two annual peaks, with the first peak occurring in August
(monsoon season) followed by a smaller peak in October (post monsoon season)
(Figure 5).
Species similarity of moths was
greater between monsoon and post-monsoon seasons than for these seasons with
pre-monsoon season (Figure 6), which indicates that species diversity of moths
changes more rapidly with the onset of monsoon season as compared to
pre-monsoon season.
Species diversity
Seasonal diversity: Shannon
diversity index for the three different seasons indicates that species
diversity was highest during ‘monsoon’ followed by ‘post monsoon’, and
‘pre-monsoon’, respectively (Figure 7).
Site diversity
The sites with relatively higher
diversity index (H’= above 1.5; Figure 8) were identified as Mundiapani, Timli,
Karwapani, Haridwar, Kalesar, and Simbalbara.
Site similarity
In the ordination plot (Figure
9), two clusters of sites are formed, the first cluster 1 (red circle) consists
of seven sites above Axis 2 that lie east of the river Ganga, while another
cluster 2 (blue dash circle) of 12 sites lie below or on the Axis 2 that lie
west of the river Ganga. The vegetation in the cluster 2 is mainly
characterized by forests with high moisture regime (One site with 3C/C2c Moist
Tarai Sal Forest & others with 3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal Forest) (Figure 10)
as compared to cluster 2 (5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest; a few
sites having 3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal Forest and one site with 5B/C1a Dry
Siwalik Sal Forest; Figure 10). This clearly indicates the changing vegetation
structure in the Shiwaliks as we move from east to west, hence changing moth
communities with changing vegetation. However, only three sites with high
diversity index, Mundiapani (3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal Forest), Chorgaliya
(3C/C2c Moist Tarai Sal Forest) and Simbalbara (5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed
Deciduous Forest) were identified assites with unique moth communities from the
rest (Figure 9, 10 & 11).
Forest types similarity
Index of similarity or Jaccard’s
Coefficient (Jaccard 1901) amongst the four forest sub-types suggests that all
forest sub-types show low similarity with each other (less than 0.3157; Table
2) and the maximum similarity exists between 3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest
and 5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest. This is an indicator of diverse
and distinct moth fauna existing in these four forest sub-types across the
landscape.
New range extensions
During recent surveys of moths in
the Shiwalik ranges of northern India the authors have already reported Lymantria
tadora (Erebidae) from Shiwaliks of Haryana State as a new range extension
from central Nepal (Singh & Lekhendra 2023). Other five new range
extensions from thetwosampling sites, (i) Simbalbara WS, Sirmaur District,
H.P., & (ii) Mundiyapani, Kalagarh Forest Division, Sonandi WS in
Uttarakhand (Figure 11, sites marked in red circles) are reported for the first
time in this paper for species otherwise known from central Nepal and
northeastern India.
1. Chlorozancla falcatus
(Butler, 1889) (Geometridae: Geometrinae: Geometrini)
One individual of C. falcatus
(Image 3) was recorded during monsoon season (18.viii.2022; Temp 28.6°C &
RH 84%) at Mundiapani [29.6947 °N & 78.7760 °E, 521 m; Forest type - 3C/C2a
Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest (Champion & Seth 1968)] in Kalagarh Forest
Division, Uttarakhand Shiwaliks, India. Chlorozancla genus occurs in
Asia [Japan, China, India (Himalaya, Khasi hills)], Sumatra, Java & Borneo
(Hampson, 1895). The type species falcatus was described from Sikkim,
and India (Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Kerala) (Kirti et al. 2012; Chandra et al.
2019; Anonymous 2023a) and is also known from Nepal (Haruta 1995). The larval
food plant of the species is Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae)(Robinson et al. 2010). The moth is dull grey-green. Fore
wing with the base yellowish; a pale straight erect post medial line; a yellow
fascia below costa towards apex, with a hyaline spot on it. Hind wing with a
hyaline medial band, wider and with yellow edges towards inner margin; traces
of a sub marginal straight line. Expanse 28 mm (Hampson 1895). This record from
Mundiapani is the first confirmed record of this species from the Shiwaliks,
which is ~900 km from Mechi Godok (964 m) in eastern Nepal, the nearest known
site record of this species.
2. Cynaeda dichroalis
(Hampson, 1903) (Crambidae: Odontiinae: Odontiini)
One individual of C.
dichroalis (Image 4) was recorded during monsoon (18.viii.2022; Temp. 28.6
°C & RH 84%) at Mundiapani [29.6947 °N & 78.7760 °E, 521m; Forest type
- 3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest (Champion & Seth1968)] in Kalagarh
Forest Division, Uttarakhand Shiwaliks, India. The species occurs in Ceylon,
Sri Lanka, Sabah, China (Yunnan) in Lowland primary & disturbed forest
(Hampson 1903). The species has also been reported from East Karbi Analog
District, Assam; South Garo Hills District, Meghalaya; Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
in India (Anonymous 2023b). However, there is no record of this species from
northern India. The species is identified by Palpi being slightly marked with
black towards extremity; frontal prominence black at sides; abdomen with the
first three segments mostly black on dorsum and the next two largely marked
with black. Forewings with the inner area fuscous black to beyond middle and
confluent with spots on base of costa. Hind wing with the basal area fuscous.
Wing expanse 18 mm (Hampson 1903). This record from Mundiapani is the first
confirmed record of this species from the Shiwaliks, which is ~1,300 km from
South Garo Hills District (349 m) in northeastern India, the nearest known site
record of this species.
3. Dichocrocis pyrrhalis
(Walker, 1859) (Crambidae: Spilomelinae)
One individual of D. pyrrhalis
(Image 5) was also recorded during monsoon season (02.vii.2022; Temp 29.8
°C; RH-84%) in the Shiwaliks range of Simbalbara NP, [30.4253 °N & 77.4332
°E; 468 m; forest sub-type-5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest (Champion
& Seth1968)] Sirmaur District, Himachal Pradesh. The genus Dichocrocis
is found in Asia, North America, Africa, Australia, and Ceylon (Hampson 1896).
D. pyrrhalis is known from Borneo, Sarawak, Nilgiri’s Ceylon (Wing expanse
26 mm) (Walker 1859; Hampson 1896). In India D. pyrrhalis found
Maharashtra, Karnataka (Anonymous 2023c). Palpi curved hardly rising above the
vertex; second joint with a slight luteous mark on the outer side; abdomen
extending rather far beyond the hind wings, with a luteous stripe along each
side and with a black apical mark. Fore wings with six luteous bands; Hind
wings with four luteous bands, wing expanse 30 mm (Walker 1859). This record
from Simbalbara is the first confirmed record of this species from the
Shiwaliks, which is ~1,400 km Mauli Hills (710 m), Maharashtra the nearest
known site record of this species.
4. Acropteris iphiata
(Guenée, 1857) (Uraniidae: Microniinae)
One individual of Acropteris
iphiata (Image 6) was recorded during monsoon season (11.viii.2021; Temp.
28.6 °C; RH 84%) at Mundiapani [29.6947 0N &78.7760 0E,
521m; Forest type - 3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest (Champion & Seth
1968)] in Kalagarh Forest Division, Uttarakhand Shiwaliks, India. The genus
occurs in Japan and throughout the Oriental and Australian regions (Hampson
1895). Acropteris iphiata is found in Japan, Burma, China, Himalaya,
Khasi, & eastern Himalaya (Hampson 1895; Sanyal et al. 2018) and
northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal)
(Anonymous 2023f). The species iphiata differs from striataria in
the cell of the fore wing being suffused with fuscous; the first line single
and well defined; the marginal line of both wings almost black. Expanse: 3,236
mm (Hampson 1895). This record from Mundiapani is the first confirmed record of
this species from the Shiwaliks, which is ~1,000 km from Ajodhya Hills (699 m)
in Purulia District, West Bengal the nearest known site record of this species.
5. Glyphodes canthusalis
Walker, 1859 (Crambidae: Spilomelinae: Margaroniini)
One individual (Image 7) was
recorded during monsoon season (11.viii.2021; Temp 28.6 °C; RH 84%) at
Mundiapani [29.6947 °N & 78.7760 °E, 521 m; Forest type - 3C/C2a Moist
Shiwalik Sal Forest (Champion & Seth 1968)] in Kalagarh Forest Division,
Uttarakhand Shiwaliks, India. The genus is found in tropical and warmer
temperate Zones (Hampson 1896). The species Glyphodes canthusalis occurs
in Sarawak, Borneo, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Taiwan, Indonesia
(Sumatra, Borneo), Australia, Nigeria,central
Himalaya, Bhutan (Walker 1859; Haruta 1995; Irungbam 2016; Sanyal et al. 2018;
Chandra et al. 2019). In India, the species is found in Andamans, Sikkim,
Assam, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka (Hampson 1896; Shah et al. 2018; Chandra et
al. 2019; Anonymous 2023f). The moth is ferruginous red and yellow, spotted and
irrorated with white; frons white; abdomen with paired white spots on basal
segments. Fore wings with series of indistinct antemedial white spots. Hind
wing with a large dark edged hyaline white post-medial patch from costa to vein
2. Wing expanse 30–36 mm. The larval food plant of the species is Ficus
religiosa (Moraceae) (Hampson 1896; Robinson et al. 2010). This record from
Mundiapani is the first confirmed record of this species from the Shiwaliks,
which is ~600 km from Devi Ghat Narayangarh (519 m) in central Nepal, the
nearest known site record of this species.
Discussion
During the present study we were
able to sample approximately 2/3 (64–68 %) of the estimated number of moth
species occurring in the study area of Shiwaliks of northern India. The flight
period of moths was recorded from April–October, but the species richness and
abundance were both high only during July–October months, i.e., monsoon &
post-monsoon seasons, and a pattern of two peaks (August & October) in
species richness of moths annually was visible during this period. A total of
232 species showed occurrence in only one season and 140 species amongst them
occurred only during the ‘monsoon’ season indicating a Univoltine habit or a
short flight period of these species. Species richness of moths correlated
positively with relative humidity (r2 = 0.100; p = 0.0142; n = 59)
during the sampling period from April–November, with maximum number of species
recorded (80–90 % RH) during the ‘monsoon’ season. Lunar phase correlated
negatively with both species richness (r2 =
0.0508; p = -0.2253; n = 59) and abundance (r2 = 0.0401; p =
-0.1551; n = 59) of moths attracted to light on moth screen.
This trend of seasonality for species richness
and abundance of moths in the Shiwaliks is a bit different from that of moths
occurring in the higher temperate Himalaya, i.e., Gangotri landscape of
Uttarakhand, where catch success per night was recorded to be maximum during
April–May (pre-monsoon season) and also during August–September (monsoon &
early post-monsoon season), but was lower during June–July (early monsoon
season) (Sanyal et al. 2013).
The families Crambidae, Erebidae,
Geometridae, and Noctuidae, respectively dominated the northern Indian Shiwalik
landscape. In another study carried out on moths limited to the Nandhaur
Wildlife Sanctuary, in the Shiwaliks in Uttarakhand state, the peak abundance
of moths was recorded during the monsoon season and the family Erebidae (10
species and 174 individuals) was the most dominant followed by Crambidae (four
species and 148 individuals) out of the total six families and 347 individuals
(Arya et al. 2021). In a recent assessment of the moth diversity of New Forest
Campus in Dehradun valley (670 m; in the tropical moist deciduous forest zone,
lying between the lower Himalayan ranges and the Shiwaliks), in Uttarakhand,
the family Erebidae dominated (165 species), followed by Geometridae (74),
Noctuidae (63), and Nolidae (27) respectively, and the maximum number of
species was reported during July (monsoon) and October (post-monsoon season)
(Singh et al. 2022). Another study carried out in Dehradun District and
Devalsari Village in Tehri Garhwal (sub-tropical & temperate), Uttarakhand
revealed 246 species with the family Erebidae to be the most dominant (96
species) (Sondhi & Sondhi 2016). Besides, in the higher western Himalaya
from Gangotri Landscape, the family Geometridae dominated (113 species)
followed by Erebidae (61) and Noctuidae (58), respectively (Sanyal et al.
2013). In the study conducted at Kedarnath WS, Uttarakhand, the family
Geometridae (86 species)dominated followed by Erebidae
(18) (Dey 2019). A study of moth diversity at various altitudes in the in the
Nainital district, Kumaun (temperate & sub-tropical Himalayan region of
Uttarakhand) revealed 887 different species of moths with the family Erebidae
(260 species) being most dominant followed by the Geometridae (198) and
Noctuidae (155), respectively (Smetacek 2008). Most of these studies in the
north Indian landscape show a trend of seasonality and dominating families
similar to the present study.
There is changing vegetation
structure in the Shiwaliks as we move from east to west across the landscape in
the study area (Figure 1). Forest sub-type 3C/C2c Moist Tarai Sal Forest
(Figure 1, yellow colour) occurs in the extreme eastern part of the Shiwaliks
and is characterized by high moisture regime whereas 5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed
Deciduous Forest (Figure 1, purple colour) occurs further west across the river
Ganges while 5B/C1a Dry Siwalik Sal Forest (Figure 1, red colour) lies in the
extreme western part of the study area. As moths are surrogates of plant
diversity with their larval host plants occurring in the habitats where they
live, the changing vegetation structure also indicated a changing moth community and this is reflected in the ordination plot
(Figure 9,10) amongst the 19 sampling sites being separated into different
clusters of forest types and proximity amongst them on the land.
Amongst the forest sub-types,
3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest sub-type holds the maximum number moth species
occurring in the north Indian Shiwaliks as compared to the other forest
sub-types owing to the large area of occupancy. Moths like Chabula
telphusalis Walker, [1859] and Creatonotos gangis Linnaeus,1762 were
two such species whose abundance dominated and showed preference for ‘3C/C2a
Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest’ and similarly both Creatonotos transiens
(Walker, 1855) and Aegocera venulia Cramer, 1777 abundance dominated and
preferred for ‘5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest’ (Appendix I).
The three sampling locations
(Mundiapani, Chorgaliya & Simbalbara) in three different representative
forest sub-types in the Shiwalik ranges were identified having unique (Figure
10) and relatively higher moth diversity than other sites,
and can be recommended as priority areas for conservation of Shiwalik
moth diversity and biodiversity in general. One of the reasons for this
uniqueness is the well preserved and intact natural forest habitats here due to
their legal protection status (i) Mundiapani-Sonanadi WS; (ii)
Chorgaliya-Nandhaur WS & (iii) Simbalbara-Simbalbara/Col. Sher Jung NP).
Besides, these sites revealed the occurrence of some unique and uncommon moths,
i.e., Brahmaea hearseyi (Brahmaeidae), Pidorus glaucopis
(Zygaenidae), Antheraea assamensis and Antheraea mylitta
(Saturniidae) in Mundiapani; Hypolamprus sp. (Thyrididae) in Chorgaliya
and Lunar Moth Actias selene (Saturnidae) in Simbalbara NP.ß
The five new range extensions
recorded into the Shiwaliks of northern India are from central Himalaya and
northeastern India indicate the affinity of these moths to the Oriental
tropics, as tropical vegetation and climate over here is also mainly influenced
and characterised by the monsoon rains. The pattern of new range extensions
indicates the changing/expanding range margins of these moths, typically known
from northeastern India /southeastern Asia, which may be associated with the
current global climate change.
Table1. Details of sampling
sites, dates and weather parameters at the time of sampling.
|
|
Sampling site |
Forest status |
District |
State |
Forest type (Champion & Seth 1968) |
Altitude (m) |
Sampling date |
Season |
Temperature (°C) |
Relative humidity (%) |
|
1. |
Naudi FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
Pauri Garhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
765 |
20.vii.2020 |
Monsoon |
27.0 |
85 |
|
2. |
Naudi FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
Pauri Garhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
765 |
21.vii.2020 |
Monsoon |
26.3 |
86 |
|
3. |
Mundiapani FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
PauriGarhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
521 |
22.vii.2020 |
Monsoon |
27.7 |
86 |
|
4. |
Mundiapani FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
PauriGarhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
521 |
23.vii.2020 |
Monsoon |
26.8 |
84 |
|
5. |
Jhilmil Jheel Reserve FRH |
Conservation Reserve |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
303 |
26.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
20.5 |
75 |
|
6. |
Mohand FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Saharanpur |
Uttar Pradesh |
5B/C1a Dry Siwalik Sal Forest |
462 |
27.x.2020 |
Post-monsoon |
21.5 |
64 |
|
7. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
574 |
28.x.2020 |
Post-monsoon |
14.5 |
71 |
|
8. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
01.vii.2021 |
Monsoon |
30.8 |
73 |
|
9. |
Sabhawala, Malhan FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
520 |
02.vii.2021 |
Monsoon |
29.1 |
70 |
|
10. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
574 |
03.vii.2021 |
Monsoon |
29.6 |
60 |
|
11. |
Mohand FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Saharanpur |
Uttar Pradesh |
5B/C1a Dry Siwalik Sal Forest |
462 |
08.vii.2021 |
Monsoon |
28.1 |
71 |
|
12. |
Asharodhi FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
642 |
09.vii.2021 |
Monsoon |
29.4 |
78 |
|
13. |
Mundiapani FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
PauriGarhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
521 |
10.viii.2021 |
Monsoon |
27.2 |
87 |
|
14. |
Mundiapani FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
PauriGarhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
521 |
11.viii.2021 |
Monsoon |
30.7 |
93 |
|
15. |
Pawalgarh FRH |
Conservation Reserve |
Nainital |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
466 |
12.viii.2021 |
Monsoon |
27.2 |
90 |
|
16. |
Pawalgarh FRH |
Conservation Reserve |
Nainital |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
466 |
13.viii.2021 |
Monsoon |
27.3 |
84 |
|
17. |
Chorgaliya FRH |
Nandhaur WLS edge |
Haldwani |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Tarai Sal Forest |
327 |
14.vii.2021 |
Monsoon |
28.2 |
92 |
|
18. |
Kalesar FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Yamuna Nagar |
Haryana |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
384 |
21.ix.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
27.8 |
83 |
|
19. |
Darpur FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Yamuna Nagar |
Haryana |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
347 |
22.ix.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
29.3 |
74 |
|
20. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
574 |
23.ix.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
27 |
77 |
|
21. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
13.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
25.4 |
71 |
|
22. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
14.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
25.8 |
67 |
|
23. |
Mohand FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Saharanpur |
Uttar Pradesh |
5B/C1a Dry Siwalik Sal Forest |
462 |
20.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
22.6 |
86 |
|
24. |
Mohand FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Saharanpur |
Uttar Pradesh |
5B/C1a Dry Siwalik Sal Forest |
462 |
21.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
20.8 |
81 |
|
25. |
Asharodhi FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
685 |
22.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
20.1 |
78 |
|
26. |
Asharodhi FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
685 |
22.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
17.8 |
83 |
|
27. |
Asharodhi FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
685 |
22.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
16.4 |
86 |
|
28. |
Mathrowala FRH |
Rajaji National Park edge |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
537 |
27.x.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
19.1 |
81 |
|
29. |
Simbalbada FRH |
Simbalbara National Park edge |
Sirmour |
Himachal Pradesh |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
468 |
22.xi.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
17.9 |
70 |
|
30. |
Kalesar FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Yamuna Nagar |
Haryana |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
384 |
23.xi.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
17.8 |
72 |
|
31. |
Suketi FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Sirmaur |
Himachal Pradesh |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
404 |
24.xi.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
18.2 |
76 |
|
32. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal Forest
|
596 |
25.xi.2021 |
Post-monsoon |
19.2 |
73 |
|
33. |
Haridwar -Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
349 |
12.iv.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
28.8 |
49 |
|
34. |
Haridwar-Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
349 |
12.iv.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
29.2 |
52 |
|
35. |
Mohand FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Saharanpur |
Uttar Pradesh |
5B/C1a Dry Siwalik Sal Forest |
462 |
13.iv.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
27.1 |
39 |
|
36. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
14.iv.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
24.6 |
46 |
|
37. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
15.iv.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
23.9 |
46 |
|
38. |
Bindhwasini Village |
Rajaji National Park Forest Edge |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
464 |
22.iv.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
25.6 |
40 |
|
39. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
574 |
14.vi.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
31 |
59 |
|
40. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
574 |
15.vi.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
27 |
66 |
|
41. |
Haridwar -Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
349 |
03.vi.2022 |
Pre-monsoon |
32 |
35 |
|
42. |
Simbalbara FRH |
Simbalbara National Park edge |
Sirmour |
Himachal Pradesh |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
468 |
02.vii.2022 |
Monsoon |
28.3 |
86 |
|
43. |
Simbalbara FRH |
Simbalbara National Park edge |
Sirmour |
Himachal Pradesh |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
468 |
03.vii.2022 |
Monsoon |
29.8 |
84 |
|
44. |
Kalesar FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Yamuna Nagar |
Haryana |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
384 |
03.vii.2022 |
Monsoon |
30.2 |
80 |
|
45. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal Forest
|
574 |
04.vii.2022 |
Monsoon |
29.8 |
87 |
|
46. |
Haridwar -Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
349 |
09.vii.2022 |
Monsoon |
31.2 |
75 |
|
47. |
Haridwar -Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
349 |
10.vii.2022 |
Monsoon |
25.7 |
87 |
|
48. |
Pakharo FRH Kalagarh |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
Pauri Garhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
301 |
16.viii.2022 |
Monsoon |
30.9 |
72 |
|
49. |
Pakharo FRH Kalagarh |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
Pauri Garhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
301 |
17.viii.2022 |
Monsoon |
29.5 |
80 |
|
50. |
Saneh FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
Pauri Garhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
310 |
17.viii.2022 |
Monsoon |
31 |
79 |
|
51. |
Mundiapani FRH |
Sonandi Wildlife Sanctuary |
Pauri Garhwal |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
521 |
18.viii.2022 |
Monsoon |
28.6 |
84 |
|
52. |
Mohan FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Almora |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
515 |
19.viii.2022 |
Monsoon |
27.9 |
86 |
|
53. |
Chorgaliya FRH |
Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctaury
edge |
Haldwani |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Tarai Sal F |
327 |
20.viii.2022 |
Monsoon |
28.5 |
85 |
|
54. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
01.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
24.3 |
87 |
|
55. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
04.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
25.6 |
89 |
|
56. |
Haridwar-Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
349 |
02.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
26.8 |
78 |
|
57. |
Haridwar-Chandighat Temple |
Reserve Forest |
Haridwar |
Uttarakhand |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous |
349 |
03.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
26.6 |
82 |
|
58. |
Timli FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
596 |
08.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
24.8 |
88 |
|
59. |
Karwapani FRH |
Reserve Forest |
Dehradun |
Uttarakhand |
3C/C2a Moist Siwalik Sal
Forest |
583 |
16.x.2022 |
Post-monsoon |
25.1 |
83 |
Table 2. Moth species similarity
amongst forest sub-types.
|
|
|
Similarity index |
|
|
|
|
Forest sub-type |
2. |
3. |
4. |
|
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
3C/C2c Moist Tarai Sal Forest |
5B/C1a Dry Shiwalik Sal Forest |
||
|
1. |
3C/C2a Moist Shiwalik Sal Forest |
0.3157* |
0.091* |
0.105* |
|
2. |
5B/C2 Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest |
- |
0.095* |
0.071* |
|
3. |
3C/C2c Moist Tarai Sal Forest |
- |
- |
0.042* |
For
figures, images, Appendix - - click here for full PDF
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