Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2023 | 15(12): 24357–24367
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8260.15.12.24357-24367
#8260 | Received 06
November 2022 | Final received 05 December 2023 | Finally accepted 12 December
2023
A review of Baya Weaver Ploceus
philippinus (Linnaeus, 1766) (Aves: Passeriformes: Ploceidae): ecological
and conservation status
Yusufkhan Pathan 1 & Arvindgiri Goswami
2
1,2 Biology Department, M.V.M.
Science & Home Science College, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat
360005, India.
1 pathanyn4@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 arvindgirigoswami@gmail.com
Editor: H. Byju, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date of publication: 26 December
2023 (online & print)
Citation: Pathan, Y. & A. Goswami (2023). A review of Baya Weaver Ploceus
philippinus (Linnaeus, 1766) (Aves: Passeriformes: Ploceidae): ecological
and conservation status. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(12): 24357–24367. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8260.15.12.24357-24367
Copyright: © Pathan & Goswami 2023. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing
adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: SHODH- ScHeme Of Developing High Quality Research,
Education Department, Gujarat State.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Pathan, Y. is a research scholar at Saurashtra university, Rajkot. He has been
working on the avian diversity and ecology of Baya Weaver
for the last five years and has an interest in study of ornithology and
conservation of birds. Dr. A. Goswami is associate professor of Zoology at Biology Department, M.V.M Science and home science college, Rajkot. His area of
specialization includes fisheries ecology, avifaunal ecology and aquatic
biodiversity.
Author contributions: YP explore the research articles and draft the manuscript. A. Goswami
supervised and finalized a manuscript.
Acknowledgements: YP was supported by SHODH
fellowship, Govt. Of Gujarat. The authors are thankful to Dr. K.J. Ganatra,
Principal of the M.V.M
Science & Home Science College, Rajkot for providing necessary permissions
and support during research work.
Abstract:
Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus is a highly social and gregarious
bird of the family Ploceidae that has been recently listed as ‘Least Concern’
by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In India, four species of genus Ploceus
are reported to date. This study focused on the appearance, distribution, diet
specificity, nesting ecology, mating behaviour, and physiological responses to
seasonal changes of P. philippinus. Populations have declined due to
poor cultivation practices by farmers, rapid urbanization, and
industrialization that have resulted in habitat loss. Weaver birds also face
threats due to natural predators such as birds, and from insect damage to
chicks, eggs, and nests.
Keywords: Diet specificity, Least Concern,
mating behaviour, nesting ecology, threats, Weaver Bird.
Introduction
Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus
is a docile, intelligent, and gregarious sparrow-sized bird that is popularly
known for excellent nest-weaving skills (Quader 2006). In 1760, the French
zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the Baya Weaver in
his book of ornithology that was based on a specimen that he believed had been
collected in the Philippines. Linnaeus (1766) provided a brief description of
the Baya Weaver, citing the elongated description of Brisson, and repeated the
locality as the Philippines. More than a century later, Hartert (1902) realized
that the Baya Weaver does not occur in the Philippines and suggested the type
locality should be Ceylon (Sri Lanka). This species is now placed in the genus Ploceus
that was introduced by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1816. India is
home to four Ploceus (Lack 1954, 1968; Grewal et al. 2016; Grimmett et
al. 2016): Black-breasted Weaver P. benghalensis, Streaked Weaver P.
manyar, Finn’s Weaver P. megarhynchus, and Baya Weaver P.
philippinus. There are many works on
nesting and population ecology (Quader 2005, 2006; Borges et al. 2002; Raju
2009; Pandian & Ahimas 2018; Kumar et al. 2018; Pandian 2022), but a
combined review has not been prepared to date. This review provides baseline
information about the nesting, mating, and population ecology, in addition to
conservation status.
Material
and Methods
Available literature was
scrutinised for the ecological and conservation studies of Baya Weaver P.
philippinus. Old articles were obtained from the Biodiversity Library
and open source/online publications. References were collected from various
institute libraries and recognised web-based literature. For the present study,
78 articles and books were screened for Baya Weaver studies including aspects
such as nesting, mating, population ecology, and conservation status.
Appearance
Female and nonbreeding male: A male and female looks similar
in nonbreeding season males exhibit brighter and more vibrant colours during
the breeding season (Inskipp et al. 2011). The non-breeding male Baya Weaver
boasts a yellow head cap, adorned with fine darker shaft streaks, while its
mantle feathers exhibit a central brown hue complemented by distinct yellow
margins. The tail and wings are dark brown with lighter margins. On the
tertials, margins of the outer vanes are buffy to rusty while they are
yellow-olive on the secondaries forming an unobtrusive wing panel. The throat
is light brown, the breast yellow and the belly is light yellowish to whitish
while the flanks are rather buffy. In addition, tarsi and toes are
horn-coloured (Stiels & Schidelko 2013).
Breeding male: The males assumed bright golden
yellow plumage on the crown, nape, breast, and sides of the neck. The bill was
pale yellow in the non-breeding season but turned blackish in April and became
black between May and October (Narasimhacharya et al. 1988).
Distribution in India: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, Gujarat
(Arigela et al. 2021).
Wider distribution: Java & Sumatra (Indonesia)
(Wood 1926), Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka (Ali &
Ripley 1999), and Afghanistan (Stiels & Schidelko 2013).
Food preference: P. philippinus feeds on
wider varieties of herbs as annotated in the Table 1. These birds forage in flocks for grains in
cultivated fields and sometimes this bird is considered an agricultural pest
(Sengupta 1974; Kale et al. 2014) but, in contrast, they also feed on different
insects which are causing damage to the cultivated crops (Arigela et al.
2021).
Nesting ecology of P.
philippinus
Nest construction pattern and its
stages: The Baya
Weaver P. philippinus, has been considered an architectural genius for
the delicate craftsmanship of building intricate pendant nests. The nest of P.
philippinus is pendulous, suspended to leaf tips, mono-storied, stalked,
and retort shaped with a central nesting chamber and long vertical tube that
leads to a side entrance to the chamber (Venkataramani 1981). Wood (1926)
mentioned that weaver birds instead of building a nest once or twice in a year
they reuse the old nest by repairing it, Raju (2009) reported that male Weaver birds
constructed a new nest because of old ones may fall along with the leaf during
an annual leaf fall. The Weaver bird rarely constructs a stalk-less nest
because such nests are hardly ever excepted by the female weaver bird (Sharma
1995). There are five stages in the construction of a nest initial attachment,
roof and egg/brood chamber, antechamber, entrance, and entrance tube (Raju
2009). Nest building was initiated by winding strands of grass around a
selected twig until firm support was secured. A bunch of strands was then woven
to form a ‘wad’ which was further expanded into an initial ring. The initial
ring was then built up to form a helmet-shaped nest. Gradually, an egg chamber
was added to the helmet and, at this stage, the bird’s nest-building activity
slowed down. Nest building only continued if the partially completed nest was
accepted by the female weaver bird, Once the nest was accepted, a long entrance
tube was added marking the completion of nest construction (Narasimhacharya et
al. 1987).
Nest building material: The
nest-building material used by this bird may vary according to the locality in
India. Most often they use herbs of the family Poaceae as a nest-building
material (Table 2). Baya weaver also preferred to build nests close to the power
cable, roads and human dwellings (Pandian 2022).
Nest orientation: Borges et al. (2002) reported that
the orientation of most of the nests is towards the east, while very few nests
are oriented towards the south and north direction and no single nest oriented
to west direction. Mean nest-entrance orientation was generally opposite to
wind direction so as to be least affected by the south-west monsoon wind (Davis
1971; Pandian 2021a). It was reported that 40% of nest colonies in Rajasthan
(Sharma 1990) and 89% of nests in Tindivanam taluka (Pandian & Ahimas
2018), 70% nests towards the east in Villupuram district and 81% of nests in
Arakkonam taluka, Tamil Nadu (Pandian 2022) were oriented towards the east
probably to protect their nests from the battering south-west monsoon winds.
Nesting platforms: In India, there is a wide variety of
plants available to serve the purpose of nesting platforms for the P.
philippinus (Ali & Ambedkar 1957; Ambedkar 1958). Availability of
nesting materials, surrounding biological environment, temperature, light
intensity, humidity, etc., restrict the nest selection of birds (Asokan et al.
2008). Psychic factor such as photoperiodic sensitivity also influence the nest
site selection (Welty 1982). A regional bias seems to exist in the choice of
certain plant species for nesting by the weaver bird, one of the reasons
proposed for such a choice is the protection against intruders provided by the
different plant species (Borges et al. 2002). A taking priority over the
availability of food and nesting fibres has considered as a primitive factor
for selection of nesting site. (Davis
1974). The nesting sites in the fields were always located near a water supply
such as irrigation wells, rivers, lakes, ponds, and sewage stagnant water, and
in urban areas underneath shady trees (Kumar et al. 2018; Pandian 2022). The
apparent bias in the selection of plant species observed in various regions of
the subcontinent raises the question of whether this reflects a genuine
preference or is simply a consequence of their widespread occurrence in the
region. The bird’s selection criteria for nesting plants may involve choosing
those with tall, sturdy, unbranched trunks, and a crown of swaying fronds. This
choice not only provides protection against intruders,
rain, and wind but also serves as a means of seeking attention from female
weaver birds (Davis 1974). Among the various preferred nesting platforms (Table
3), some of them are also used for roosting and foraging. These birds move in flock to the sugarcane
crops and Prosopis juliflora for roosting and foraging purposes (Pandian
2021b).
Mating Behaviour
Mate and nest choice: In many species of weaverbirds,
males display their nests to females, suggesting that females may use nests for
mate choice (Quader 2005). After the completion of the
nest up to the wad stage, females arrive and visit several nests before
pairing. Female choice of mates has been presumed to be based largely on the
color; material and quality of the available nest
(Collias & Collias 1964b, 1984; Crook 1960; Narasimhacharya et al. 1987).
Female choice of the site may be influenced by both wind direction and safety
from predation (Quader 2003). Most helmets were never made into complete nests
and hence nest completion is a good indicator of female choice (Quader 2006).
Ambedkar (1964) and Crook (1964) reported that the nest at a higher height
is safer from predation than lower-heightened nests. Nest height is believed to
be an important influence on nesting success in birds (Martin 1993) within tree
nesting species, predation tends to decrease with height (Cresswell 1997;
Schmidt & Whelan 1999). Both males and females are polygamous. Males
usually build partial nests and complete them only after courting females (Ali
et al. 1956). The male may build another helmet to attract another female. If a
helmet is not accepted by any female the male often
tears it down and builds a new one in its place (Abdar 2013). Quader (2006)
found that several aspects of nest location (tree type, diameter of branch,
nest height) and nest architecture (fibre thickness) predict direct benefit to
females when nesting date and year are statistically controlled.
Breeding season: The Baya Weaver breeds during the
rainy season (monsoon) in the Indian subcontinent (Ali & Ripley 1987). The
breeding period of the Baya Weaver is largely based on seasonal changes
and the availability of the diet. Food availability is preferably dependent on
environmental factors such as temperature and rainfall and its ultimate cause
to control seasonal breeding (Baker 1938; Immelmann 1971).
Physiological Responses to seasonal
changes: The
reproductive activity stimulates responses to the photoperiod (Thapliyal &
Saxena 1964; Singh & Chandola 1981) as increasing day length during the
pre-monsoon season. The stimulation of gonadotropic hormones in P.
phillipinus such as leutinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone level varies
in response to day length (Thapliyal & Saxena 1964; Stokkan & Sharp
1980) as its concentration increases during the month of April and May and highest between June and September
(Narasimhacharya et al. 1987). The expression of gonadotropin inhibiting
hormone is high on short days when the duration of nocturnal melatonin is
increased, and low on long days when the duration of nocturnal melatonin is
decreased (Ubuka et al. 2005). The environmental factors also contributed
to the ecological significance via accompanying pre-breeding sexual changes and
behaviour (Morley 1943; Sharp et al. 1986). A pre-nuptial molt occurred between
March and June and a post-nuptial molt between October and November
(Narasimhacharya et al. 1987). The lightning of the bill
color starts to cause in August and its turns to a complete straw color
in November and depigmented their plumage to the non-breeding type (Rani et al.
2007; Pandey & Bhardwaj 2015). The alteration in night light as a bright
light during the night alters the resting pattern of this bird it induced a
fragmented activity in the early phase of night and enhancement at late night
instead of the actual onset of the day (Raap et al. 2015; Touitou et al. 2017;
Kumar et al. 2018). The midnight activity increases in presence of
bright light due to advancement in the endogenous clock function as the
suppression level of melatonin and increased body
temperature (Kumar et al. 2002; Jong et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2018). An
endogenous clock system sensitive to light enables the bird to synchronize its
physiological activities at the appropriate time of the day and time of the
year (Kumar & Follett 1993a; Kumar et al. 1996).
Clutch size and coloration: The female lay 2–4 white eggs and
incubates them for 14–17 days. (Ali & Ambedkar 1957). Two eggs per
nest were observed by Venkatramani (1981) and Sharma (1995).
Threats
Pandian (2021b) reported that
farmers are the prime reason behind the declining population of the Ploceus
philippinus in India. They burn herbs and shrubs under nest supporting
trees and by clearing grasses around irrigation wells which may cause the
scarcity of the nesting substrata for the P. philippinus. Individuals of
Rufous treepie damage the nest of the weaver birds by driving a circular
hole over the nest and predating the egg and chicks and it is also damaged by
other bird species such as Corvus splendens, Corvus macrorhynchos,
Dicrurus macrocercus, and Eudynamys scolopaceus (Ali 1931;
Pandian 2021a, 2022). Ali et al. (1957) observed that the predation by House
Crow Corvus splendens (Passeriformes: Corvidae) is very common. Pandian
(2022) reported that 1,050 nests had fallen during their study period among
various sites in Tamil Nadu, it has been found that total of 25 eggs and 18
dead chicks were spread near fallen nests may due to various biotic and
abiotic factors as suggested by Ali et al. (1957), Collias & Collias (1959,
1962), and Pandian (2021b). Rapid urbanization and industrialization have
resulted in declining areas of cultivation up to 20%, particularly cereal
crops, thus causing lack of food grains and insect fauna to P. philippinus (Pandian
2018). The presence of heavy metal contamination in excreta has indicated that
it might have a negative impact on the abundance of Baya Weaver in Punjab state
(Sidhu & Kler 2021). Ploceus philippinus has most recently been
assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in
2016 as ‘Least Concern’ (Birdlife International 2016).
Conclusion
This study provides information
about appearance, food specificity, nesting ecology, and mating behaviour of
the P. philippinus. It is found that a small sparrow sized weaver bird
shows sexual dimorphism in appearance. They mostly prefer a wider variety of
herbs species in their diet as it perennially found during all seasons but
highly flourish during cold season. Along with the food availability some
physiological changes bring a seasonal breeding bird. These birds are famous
for their nest weaving practices, it can be considered as a nidificate
architect. Species specific studies and
detailed knowledge of local bird population can greatly help in effective
management measures, as several scientific aspects covered by the many
initiators among diverse countries. It can help to bridge
gaps in knowledge and benefit the future survival of a population of P.
philippinus in the threatened environment. However, this review could act
as a baseline for further research on ecology of P. philippinus.
Table 1. Details about the food
specificity of Ploceus philippinus.
|
|
Plant type |
Family |
Scientific name |
|
1 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Acrachne racemosa (B. Heyne ex Roth)
Ohwi |
|
2 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf |
|
3 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Steud. |
|
4 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Arundinella setosa Trin. |
|
5 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. |
|
6 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines |
|
7 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Brachiaria semiundulata (Hochst. ex A.
Rich.) Stapf |
|
8 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.) A. Camus |
|
9 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. |
|
10 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Diplachne fusca (L.) P. Beauv. ex
Roem. & Schult. |
|
11 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link |
|
12 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. |
|
13 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H.
Scholz |
|
14 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa frumentacea Link |
|
15 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch |
|
16 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa picta (J. Koenig) P.W.
Michael |
|
17 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv. |
|
18 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Hensch. |
|
19 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. |
|
20 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. |
|
21 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eriochloa fatmensis (Hochst. &
Steud.) Clayton |
|
22 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. |
|
23 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Hymenachne amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees |
|
24 |
Herb |
Juncaceae |
Juncus bufonius L. |
|
25 |
Herb |
Juncaceae |
Juncus effusus L. |
|
26 |
Herb |
Juncaceae |
Juncus inflexus L. |
|
27 |
Herb |
Juncaceae |
Juncus prismatocarpus R.Br. |
|
28 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees |
|
29 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi |
|
30 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Leptochloa uniflora Hochst. ex A. Rich. |
|
31 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Oryza rufipogon Griff. |
|
32 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Oryza sativa L. |
|
33 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum brevifolium L. |
|
34 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum curviflorum Hornem. |
|
35 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum humile Steud. |
|
36 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum miliaceum L. |
|
37 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum notatum Retz. |
|
38 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum paludosum Roxb. |
|
39 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum repens L. |
|
40 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum sparsicomum Nees ex Steud., |
|
41 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Panicum sumatrense Roth |
|
42 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Paspalum distichum L. |
|
43 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Paspalum scrobiculatum L. |
|
44 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. |
|
45 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase |
|
46 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sacciolepis myosuroides (R. Br.) Chase ex
E.G. Camus & A. Camus |
|
47 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria geminata (Forssk.) Veldkamp |
|
48 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria intermedia Roem. & Schult. |
|
49 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. |
|
50 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &
Schult. |
|
51 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria punctata (Burm. f.) Veldkamp |
|
52 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria verticillata (L.) P. Beauv. |
|
53 |
Subshrub |
Solanaceae |
Solanum diphyllum L. |
|
54 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench |
|
55 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. |
|
56 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.) Kunth |
|
57 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sporobolus diandrus (Retz.) P. Beauv. |
|
58 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Triticum aestivum L. |
|
59 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Triticum turgidum L. subsp. dicoccum
(Schrank ex Schübl.) Thell. |
|
60 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa deflexa (Schumach.) H.
Scholz |
|
61 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa distachya (L.) T.Q. Nguyen |
|
62 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa kurzii (Hook. f.) T.Q.
Nguyen |
|
63 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa maxima (Jacq.) R.D.
Webster |
|
64 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa mutica (Forssk.) T.Q.
Nguyen |
|
65 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. |
|
66 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa ramosa (L.) T.Q. Nguyen |
|
67 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa reptans (L.) Stapf |
|
68 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa setigera (Retz.) Stapf |
|
69 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa trichopus (Hochst.) Stapf |
Subramanyam (2017), Surender et
al. (2018), Arigela (2021), Pandian (2022).
Table 2. Annotated list of the
nest building material used by P. philippinus.
|
|
Habit |
Family |
Scientific Name |
|
1 |
Subshrub |
Poaceae |
Arundo donax L. |
|
2 |
Shrub |
Poaceae |
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss |
|
3 |
Tree |
Arecaceae |
Borassus flabellifer L. |
|
4 |
Tree |
Arecaceae |
Caryota urens L. |
|
5 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty |
|
6 |
Tree |
Arecaceae |
Cocos nucifera L. |
|
7 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. |
|
8 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus articulatus L. |
|
9 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. |
|
10 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus digitatus Roxb. |
|
11 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus exaltatus Retz. |
|
12 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus pangorei Rottb. |
|
13 |
|
Arecaceae |
Dypsis lutescens (H.Wendl.)
Beentje & J. Dransf. |
|
14 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. |
|
15 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H.
Scholz |
|
16 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa frumentacea Link |
|
17 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch |
|
18 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa picta (J. Koenig) P.W.
Michael |
|
19 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv. |
|
20 |
Herb |
Cyperaceae |
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Hensch. |
|
21 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. |
|
22 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. |
|
23 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex
Steud. |
|
24 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. |
|
25 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. |
|
26 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex
Steud. |
|
27 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees |
|
28 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis tenuifolia (A. Rich.) Hochst.
ex Steud. |
|
29 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eriochloa fatmensis (Hochst. &
Steud.) Clayton |
|
30 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. |
|
31 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Ischaemum afrum (J.F. Gmel.) Dandy |
|
32 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Oryza sativa L. |
|
33 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. |
|
34 |
Tree |
Arecaceae |
Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. |
|
35 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. |
|
36 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Pogonatherum paniceum (Lam.) Hack. |
|
37 |
Tree |
Arecaceae |
Roystonea regia O.F.Cook |
|
38 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Saccharum spontaneum L. |
|
39 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Saccharum officinarum L. |
|
40 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf |
|
41 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Setaria verticillata (L.) P. Beauv. |
|
42 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench |
|
43 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. |
|
44 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers. |
|
45 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Sporobolus diandrus (Retz.) P. Beauv. |
|
46 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda |
|
47 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Triticum aestivum L. |
|
48 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Triticum turgidum L. subsp. dicoccum
(Schrank ex Schübl.) Thell. |
|
49 |
Herb |
Typhaceae |
Typha angustifolia L. |
|
50 |
Herb |
Typhaceae |
Typha domingensis Pers. |
|
51 |
|
Typhaceae |
Typha elephantina Roxb. |
|
52 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa maxima (Jacq.) R.D.
Webster |
|
53 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa mutica (Forssk.) T.Q.
Nguyen |
|
54 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. |
|
55 |
Herb |
Poaceae |
Urochloa trichopus (Hochst.) Stapf |
|
56 |
Tree |
Arecaceae |
Wodyetia bifurcata A.K. Irvine |
Borges et al. (2002), Arigela
(2021), Pandian (2022).
Table 3. Detail about the nesting
platforms preferred by the P. philippinus among the various part of the
countries.
|
|
Type of plant |
Host plant |
No. of nest |
Locality |
Reference |
|
1 |
Unbranched Trees |
Borassus flabellifer |
247 |
Tindivanam Taluk, Villupuram
District, Tamil Nadu, India |
Pandian (2018) |
|
2 |
Cocos nucifera |
||||
|
3 |
Phoenix sylvestris |
||||
|
4 |
Branched trees |
Casuarina equisetifolia |
12 |
||
|
5 |
Ficus benghalensis |
||||
|
6 |
Azadirachta indica |
||||
|
7 |
Morinda tinctoria |
||||
|
8 |
Prosopis juliflora |
||||
|
9 |
Pithecellobium dulce |
||||
|
10 |
Shrubs |
Phyllanthus reticulatus |
7 |
||
|
11 |
Securinega leucopyrus |
||||
|
12 |
Twiner |
Cissampelos pareira |
3 |
||
|
13 |
Herb |
Ruellia prostrata |
1 |
||
|
14 |
Power cables |
4 |
|||
|
15 |
Unbranched Trees |
Acacia nilotica |
-- |
Western ghat, Maharashtra,
India |
Abdar (2013) |
|
16 |
Cycas sphaerica |
-- |
Jalantrakota reserve forest |
Raju (2009) |
|
|
17 |
Cocos nucifera |
244 |
Agricultural study plot at
Chorao an island in the Mandovi estuary in Goa, India. |
Borges et al. (2002) |
|
|
18 |
Eucalyptus sp. |
136 |
|||
|
19 |
Careya arborea |
2 |
|||
|
20 |
Saccharum sp. |
3 |
|||
|
21 |
Bambusa sp |
3 |
|||
|
22 |
Borassus flabellifer |
-- |
Nagapattinam and Tiruvarur
District of Tamil Nadu, India. |
Asokan et al (2008) |
|
|
23 |
Cocos nucifera |
-- |
|||
|
24 |
Phoneix psuilla |
-- |
|||
|
25 |
Acacia Nilotica |
286 |
Nanded, Maharashtra, India |
|
|
|
26 |
Prosopis Juliflora |
14 |
|||
|
27 |
Azadirachta Indica |
18 |
|||
|
28 |
Ziziphus mauritiana |
41 |
|||
|
29 |
Acacia Karroo |
39 |
|||
|
30 |
Mgifera Indica |
1 |
|||
|
31 |
Dalbergia Sisooroxh |
13 |
|||
|
32 |
Cocos Nucifera |
6 |
|||
|
33 |
Ficus Religiosa |
17 |
|||
|
34 |
Borassus fabellife |
8304 |
Tindivanam, Tamil Nadu, India |
Pandian (2022) |
|
|
35 |
Phoenix sylvestris (Arecaceae) |
1083 |
|||
|
36 |
Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae) |
1277 |
|||
|
37 |
Prosopis julifora (Fabaceae) |
186 |
|||
|
38 |
Morinda tnctoria (Rubiaceae) |
64 |
|||
|
39 |
Casuarina equisetfolia |
102 |
|||
|
40 |
Phyllanthus retculatu |
31 |
|||
|
41 |
Vachellia nilotca (Fabaceae) |
41 |
|||
|
42 |
Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) |
39 |
|||
|
43 |
Flueggea leucopyrus |
38 |
|||
|
44 |
Ficus benghalensis (Fabaceae) |
58 |
|||
|
45 |
Unbranched Trees |
Lantana camara (Verbanaceae) |
113 |
Tindivanam, Tamil Nadu, India |
Pandian (2022) |
|
46 |
Pithecellobium dulce (Fabaceae) |
12 |
|||
|
47 |
Senna siamea |
10 |
|||
|
48 |
Chromolaena odorata
(Asteraceae) |
8 |
|||
|
49 |
Ficus religios |
3 |
|||
|
50 |
Leucaena leucocephela
(Fabaceae) |
8 |
|||
|
51 |
Albizia lebbeck (Fabaceae) |
21 |
|||
|
52 |
Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae) |
12 |
|||
|
53 |
Passifora foetda
(Passiforaceae) |
1 |
|||
|
54 |
Tamarindus indica (Tamarindus) |
1 |
|||
|
55 |
Ehereta pubescens
(Boraginaceae) |
3 |
|||
|
56 |
Ziziphus oenopolia (Ramnaceae) |
1 |
|||
|
57 |
Cocculus carolinu |
1 |
|||
|
58 |
Solanum trilobatum (Solanaceae) |
1 |
|||
|
59 |
Musa paradisiaca (Musaceae) |
1 |
|||
|
60 |
Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) |
4 |
|||
|
61 |
Crop |
Cereal grain crop |
7477 |
Pandian (2022) |
|
|
62 |
Sugarcane |
1641 |
|||
|
63 |
Pulses & oil seeds |
767 |
|||
|
64 |
Fallow lands |
381 |
|||
|
65 |
Casuarina groves |
568 |
|||
|
66 |
Residental area |
173 |
|||
|
67 |
Flower crops |
106 |
|||
|
68 |
Other groves |
273 |
|||
|
69 |
Abnormal nest supporting plant |
Borassus fabellifer- female |
3682 |
Pandian (2022) |
|
|
70 |
Borassus fabellifer- male |
2272 |
|||
|
71 |
Cocos nucifera |
776 |
|||
|
72 |
Phoenix sylvestris |
452 |
|||
|
73 |
Morinda tnctoria |
43 |
|||
|
74 |
Prosopis julifora |
73 |
|||
|
75 |
Vachellia nilotica |
11 |
|||
|
76 |
Azadirachta indica |
15 |
|||
|
77 |
Ficus benghalensis |
90 |
|||
|
78 |
Flueggea leucopyrus |
10 |
|||
|
79 |
Lantana camara |
7 |
|||
Arigela (2021), Abdar (2012),
Pandian (2018), Abdar (2013), Raju (2009), Borges et al. (2002), Asokan et al.
(2008), Pandian (2022).
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images - - click here for full PDF
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