Streamside amphibian
communities in plantations and a rainforest fragment in the Anamalaihills, India
Ranjini Murali 1& T.R. Shankar Raman 2
1,2 Nature
Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, 4th Cross, GokulamPark, Mysore, Karnataka 570002, India
Email: 1 ranjini@ncf-india.org (corresponding author), 2 trsr@ncf-india.org
Date of publication (online): 26 August 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 August 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Sanjay Molur
Manuscript details:
Ms #
o2829
Received 09 June 2011
Final received 27 February 2012
Finally accepted 07 August 2012
Citation: Murali, R. &
T.R.S. Raman (2012). Streamside amphibian communities in plantations and a rainforest
fragment in the Anamalai hills, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(9): 2849–2856.
Copyright: © Ranjini Murali & T.R. Shankar Raman 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UnportedLicense. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Author Details: SAuthor Details: Ranjini Murali worked as a Research Affiliate on this project and currently works
as the Conservation Coordinator in the High Altitude Programmeof the Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF).
T.R.
Shankar Raman is a Senior Scientist with NCF working on rainforest
restoration and conservation in the Western Ghats.
Author Contribution: The first author participated
in study design, carried out the field work, analysis,
and writing. The second author helped design the study, analysedata, and write the manuscript.
Acknowledgements:This study formed part of the rainforest restoration and sustainable
agriculture project, financially supported by the Ecosystems Grant Programme of the Netherlands Committee for the IUCN, and
the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund (CEPF). We are grateful to Tata Coffee
Ltd. and Parry Agro Industries Ltd. for permission to work in their estates, and
to Dinesh and Kannan for field assistance. We are
very grateful to Dr. K. V. Gururaja, Saloni Bhatia, and Sachin Rai for their help with the identification of amphibians
and to the reviewers for helpful suggestions that improved the manuscript. We
thank our colleagues, Divya Mudappa,
M. Ananda Kumar, and P. Jeganathan,
for discussions and help.
Abstract:Stream amphibian communities, occupying a sensitive environment, are
often useful indicators of effects of adjoining land uses. We compared abundance
and community composition of anuran amphibians along streams in tea
monoculture, shade coffee plantation, and a rainforest fragment in Old Valparai area of the Anamalaihills. Overall species density and rarefaction species richness was the highest
in rainforest fragment and did not vary between the coffee and tea land uses.
Densities of certain taxa, and consequently community composition, varied
significantly among the land uses, being greater between rainforest fragment
and tea monoculture with shade coffee being intermediate. Observed changes are
probably related to streamside alteration due to land use, suggesting the need
to retain shade tree cover and remnant riparian rainforest vegetation as
buffers along streams.
Keywords: Herpetofauna, shade
coffee, species richness, tea plantation, Western Ghats.
This article forms part of a special series on the Western
Ghats of India, disseminating the results of work supported by the Critical
Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint initiative of l’Agence Française de Développement,
Conservation International, the Global Environment Facility, the Government of
Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank. A fundamental goal of CEPF
is to ensure civil society is engaged in biodiversity conservation.
Implementation of the CEPF investment program in the Western Ghats is led and
coordinated by the Ashoka Trust for Research in
Ecology and the Environment (ATREE).
For figures,
images, tables -- click here
Introduction
Habitat alteration, fragmentation, and
destruction are the greatest threats to biodiversity worldwide (Vitousek et al. 1997), especially in tropical zones where
diversity is high and forests are being transformed at a rapid rate (Pineda
& Halffter 2004). The negative effects of these threats
include decreased species richness and abundance, changes in species
composition, and loss of genetic diversity (Saunders et al. 1991; Turner 1996; Laurance et al. 2002; Bell & Donnelly 2006). There is also increasing concern over
the impacts of such threats on freshwater ecosystems (Strayer& Dudgeon 2010), particularly streams and rivers (Collier 2011). Streams and stream-dependent organisms
are particularly sensitive and most likely to be affected by such changes in
land use (Welsh & Ollivier 1998; Sreekantha et al. 2007; Gururajaet al. 2008), especially in plantations where they are susceptible to
agro-chemical drift, erosion and run-off (Logan 1993).
In the tropics, amphibians are good
biological indicators of stream quality for several reasons. They usually have a bi-phasic life cycle
with an aquatic larval stage and a terrestrial adult stage, their highly
permeable skin makes them extremely sensitive to physical and chemical changes
in their environment, and they occur at high densities in the tropical
environments as important primary, mid-level, and top consumers (Wyman 1990;
Wake 1991; Blaustein et al. 1994; Bell & Donnelly
2006). During their aquatic stage,
many amphibian larvae are susceptible to even minor changes in the stream
environment because of their specialised use of the
stream microhabitats (Welsh & Ollivier1998). Depending on the
availability of breeding habitats and the dispersal ability of species, streams
in a region can vary considerably in amphibian diversity and this variation can
greatly influence local and regional amphibian species diversity (Krishna et
al. 2005; Vasudevan et al. 2006).
The Western Ghats mountains,a biodiversity hotspot, extend for nearly 1600km (from 80N to 210N)
along the west coast of India. Considerable tracts in the wetter and higher reaches, once covered
by tropical rainforests are now dominated by plantations of tea, coffee, rubber,
and cardamom with isolated fragments of forests and other areas of conservation
value (Kumar et al. 2004; Das et al. 2006; Bali et al. 2007; Dolia et al. 2008). The region has a high diversity and endemism of amphibian species with
181 known species, (including new species described in recent years) of which
159 (88%) are endemic to the Western Ghats (Aravind& Gururaja 2011; Bhattaet al. 2011; Biju et al. 2011; Dinesh & Radhakrishna 2011; Zachariah et al. 2011a,b). There is need for better documentation
of the animal communities of tropical streams in the Western Ghats and the
relationship between community structure and terrestrial landscape elements or
land-uses (Krishna et al. 2005; Sreekantha et al.
2007; Gururaja et al. 2008; Karthicket al. 2011; Prakash et al. 2012).
Here, we evaluate the influence of land
use on stream anuran diversity and density in the Western Ghats of southern
India during the monsoon season. Earlier research from other parts of the Western Ghats has shown that
amphibians can be sensitive indicators of change in habitat and land-use
(Daniels 2003; Krishna et al. 2005; Gururaja et al.
2008). We extend this work to a
fragmented landscape in the Anamalai hills where we
compare the occurrence, abundance, and species composition of anurans along
streams in three land uses: monoculture tea plantation, shade coffee
plantation, and rainforest fragment. This study aimed to understand stream amphibian community response to
alterations in land use in order to help in formulating strategies for species
conservation in human-dominated landscapes.
Materials and Methods
This study was conducted during July and
August 2010 (southwest monsoon season) in the Valparaiplateau in the Tamil Nadu part of the Anamalai hills
in the southern Western Ghats. The Valparai plateau spans an area of 220km² with
plantations of tea (Camellia sinensis), coffee
(Arabica: Coffea arabica,Robusta: C. canephora), Eucalyptus, and
cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
plantations with around 40 rainforest fragments embedded in the landscape
matrix (Mudappa & Raman 2007). The Valparaiplateau lies within a larger landscape adjoining the AnamalaiTiger Reserve (958km², 10012’–10035’N and 76049’–77024’E)
to the north and east in Tamil Nadu, and reserved forests and the Parambikulam Tiger Reserve to the south and west in Kerala.
The selected sites included tea and
coffee plantation in Velonie Estate, and Tata Finlay
(Old Valparai) rainforest fragment, all of which were
within a 2km radius and at an altitude of c. 1000m (Image 1). Sampling was carried out along a first
order and fourth order stream in both coffee and tea plantations, while only
first order stream was available within the 32ha rainforest fragment for
sampling. The same fourth order
stream flowed through the tea and coffee. The first order streams in the coffee and the tea estate were both
around 100m long.
Visual encounter surveys (Heyer et al. 1994) were carried out in quadrats 50m long
and 4m wide. Seven separate
quadrats were sampled in each habitat, four sampled once and three sampled on
two occasions yielding a total of 10 samples in each land-use type. As the sampling in the repeat quadrats
was carried out at least six weeks apart, they are considered independent
samples for the purpose of the present analysis. Five quadrats were along the fourth
order stream in the coffee and tea estate and two quadrats were along the first
order streams.
All quadrat surveys were carried out at
night between 1900 and 2000 hr. Two
observers surveyed each quadrat using
torches to look for amphibians while walking very slowly to complete each
quadrat in 60 min. No stones or
logs were overturned along the site so as to cause minimum disturbance to the
habitat and shrubs (coffee and tea, in the case of plantations) were also
scanned during the sampling. Most
amphibians were identified in the field. We made no specimen collections and minimisedhandling to avoid harm or disturbance to amphibians. Photographs were taken of amphibians that
could not be identified on field for later identification using field guides
(Daniel 2002), taxonomic literature (Kuramoto et al.
2007; Biju & Bossuyt2009), and consultation with experts (K.V. Gururaja, Sachin Rai, SaloniBhatia). All species belonging to
the genus Fejervarya and Raorchesteswere identified only to the genus level as proper
identification would require closer taxonomic and genetic analysis. Further, all young ones were excluded
from this study.
Species diversity
of amphibians was analysed both as species density
(number of species per quadrat) as well as species richness (number of species
for a standardised sample of 100 individuals)
following Gotelli & Colwell (2001). Estimates of species richness (and
corresponding 95% confidence intervals) through rarefaction analysis were made
using the program EcoSim (Gotelli& Entsminger 2009). Amphibian density was measured as the
number of amphibians per quadrat (density of individuals) for both total individuals
(total density) as well as for individual taxa. We used one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s HSD tests to examine
statistical significance of differences among land uses in species density and
amphibian densities (total density and individual taxa). For individual taxa, ANOVA was performed
only for those taxa where more than 10 individuals were observed (i.e., Duttaphrynus sp. and Indirana sp. were excluded). ANOVA and TukeyHSD tests were performed using the R statistical and programming environment
(version 2.10, R Development Core Team 2009). Amphibian species composition across
sites was analysed by non-metric multi-dimensional
scaling (MDS) ordination of the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity matrix of quadrats,
using the software PRIMER (Clarke & Warwick 1994; Clarke & Gorley 2001). Significance of variation in community composition was assessed using
analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) using PRIMER (Clarke & Warwick 1994).
Results
We recorded 413 individuals belonging to
10 different anuran amphibian taxa from the three different land uses: 149
individuals from coffee, 142 from rainforest fragment, and 122 from tea
plantation (Table 1). The number of
taxa recorded was higher (9) in the rainforest fragment than in coffee (6) and
tea (6). This was also reflected in
the rarefaction analysis of species richness (Fig. 1a) and comparisons of the
number of species for a standardised sample of 100
individuals revealed that species richness was higher in rainforest fragment
than in the plantations (Fig. 1b). Analysis of species density (number of species per quadrat) likewise
showed statistically significant differences (ANOVA, F(2,27)=5.94,
P=0.0073), with the rainforest fragment having the highest species density (mean±S.E: 4.3±1.36 species/quadrat), followed by coffee
(3.4±1.06), and tea (2.6±0.82). The
difference between rainforest fragment and tea plantation was found to be
statistically significant in the Tukey HSD test (P
< 0.05).
While total amphibian density
(individuals / 200 m² ± SE) did not vary among the three land-uses (Table
1), density of individual taxa varied. Tea had the highest density of Fejervarya sp. (10±3.16) and the rainforest fragment had the least
(2.4±0.76), with density in coffee being intermediate but not significantly
different from tea. Micrixalus sp. and Nyctibatrachus sp. were recorded only in the rainforest fragment. Raorchestes sp. was significantly higher in density in coffee (2.9±0.92), compared to
tea and rainforest fragment that had the same density (0.7±0.22). Euphlyctis cyanophlyctiswas not recorded in the rainforest fragment and its density was highest in
coffee (2.4±0.76) followed by tea (0.6±0.19), although the difference between
the plantations was not statistically significant (Table 1).
Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling
ordination (Fig. 2) suggests that species composition in rainforest fragment
quadrats varied from tea quadrats, with coffee quadrats occupying an
intermediate position. Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) results showed that
variation in amphibian community composition among the three land-use types was
statistically significant (global R=0.438, P<0.001). Pair-wise comparisons between land-use
types indicated statistically significant variation between rainforest fragment
and tea (R=0.641, P<0.001), rainforest fragment and coffee (R=0.522,
P=0.002), and coffee and tea (R=0.188, P=0.015).
Discussion
This study showed that streamside anuran
species richness was highest in the rainforest fragment and decreased in coffee
and tea plantations. Decreasing
canopy cover resulting in higher temperatures, increasing wind velocity and
decreasing soil and atmospheric humidity (Saunders et al. 1991; Pineda & Halffter 2004) could account for the decreased species
richness in coffee and tea plantations. Similarly, Krishna et al. (2005) reported a decrease in richness between
forest and coffee and cardamom land uses in the central Western Ghats.
Studies on conservation value of plantations
in the Western Ghats for other taxonomic groups have shown that a diversity of
species use these plantations, including many species typical to forests of the
region as well as more widely distributed species of more open habitats (Raman
2006; Bali et al. 2007; Dolia et al. 2008; Anand et al. 2008). Daniels (2003) also opined that tea
plantations were capable of supporting many amphibian species. Similarly, our study indicates that a
number of anurans use the coffee and tea plantations, although the diversity is
lower than in the rainforest fragment.
Species composition often varies among
land use types, and species with specific ecological requirements that are not
available in modified land uses may be more affected than others (Waltert et al. 2004). In the present study, Micrixalus sp.and Nyctibatrachus sp. (genera of
mainly forest-dependent species endemic to the Western Ghats; Aravind & Gururaja 2011) were
the most affected by land use, being absent from coffee and tea
plantations. Krishna et al. (2005)
also reported the absence of Micrixalus sp.
from coffee plantations. The
highest number of Fejervarya sp. was
found in the tea estate. Fejervarya are generalists known to occur near still
and stagnant water where they are known to breed (Kuramotoet al. 2007), such habitats were available in the streams through tea estate where due to open canopy and dense growth of grasses and sedges, the
streams were partly swampy along the valley. Daniels (2003) also noted the common
occurrence of generalist anurans such as Fejervaryasp. and Duttaphrynus melanostictus in his survey in tea plantations. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctiswas completely absent in the forest fragment and was sighted mainly in coffee
with very few individuals recorded in tea. This species is aquatic or semi-aquatic and usually live half submerged
in water or at the water’s edge in ponds, wetlands, paddy fields and ditches (Joshy et al. 2009). Andrews et al. (2005) and Krishna et al. (2005) also reported an absence
of Euphlyctis sp. from rainforest. Our results showing more generalist
species in plantations and more forest-dependent endemic species in fragments
are consistent with Gururaja et al.’s (2008)
observation that human induced changes in land-uses, canopy cover, and hydrological
regimes may support generalist amphibian species whereas less disturbed forest
areas with higher canopy cover, tree density and rainfall support more endemic
species.
The differences in species composition
may be due to variation in streamside vegetation and environment, including
decreased riparian vegetation and decreased clear-flowing water in the
plantations, especially the highly modified tea monocultures (as noticed in a
parallel study in the same landscape; Prakash et al.
2012). It is unlikely that
variation in species composition is due to variation in stream order as the
first and fourth order streams in the coffee and the tea plantations did not
differ noticeably from each other, while clearly differing from the first order
stream through the rainforest fragment. As amphibians often display a patchy distribution linked to micro-climate conditions or spawning places (Zimmerman &Bierregaard 1986), such factors may be more
influential on variation in species composition due to land use change.
Despite some clear patterns, the present
study had several limitations. Being carried out during July and August, it is representative only of
the southwest monsoon season. Besides canopy species being completely omitted, other species may
have been missed as well as the observers tried to be as non-intrusive as
possible. Visibility also
varied across the three land uses, being highest in tea, followed by coffee,
and then rainforest fragment, suggesting that the higher richness in the latter
may only be a conservative estimate. However, the species richness in the coffee land use may be higher as Raorchestes sp., identified only to
genus, may represent several species. We conclude that a longer-term study of amphibian species in coffee and
tea plantations can provide a more comprehensive view of the effects of land
use change, of which the present study forms a useful baseline. Such research can also help pinpoint
better agricultural land-use practices that minimiseor avoid negative environmental impacts on streams (Logan 1993), and may be
linked to opportunities for sustainable agriculture certification for
plantation businesses that adopt such better land-use practices (Aerts et al. 2010).
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