Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 May 2022 | 14(5): 20970–20987
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7762.14.5.20970-20987
#7762 | Received 28
November 2021 | Final received 09 April 2022 | Finally accepted 01 May 2022
Nesting habits of the Baya Weaver
Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus, 1766) in the agricultural landscape of
Tindivanam, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Pandian
No. F1901, Taisha, Natesan Nagar
West, Virugambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600092, India.
pandian.m14@gmail.com
Editor: H. Byju, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
India. Date of publication: 26 May 2022 (online
& print)
Citation: Pandian, M. (2022). Nesting habits of the Baya Weaver
Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus, 1766) in the agricultural landscape of
Tindivanam, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 14(5): 20970–20987. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7762.14.5.20970-20987
Copyright: © Pandian 2022. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The author declares no competing
interests.
Author details: M. Pandian has completed MSc, PhD, in
Botany and BLIS from University of Madras and Bachelor of Education (BEd) from
Annamalai University, Chidambaram and now serves in Tamil Nadu Police
Department. His area of interest is ecology and nesting biology of birds and
has published a few papers on house sparrows, weaver birds, munias, ring-necked
parakeets, and Indian flying fox.
Acknowledgements: I thank D. Balaji, K. Sriram
(Villupuram) for help in data collection and photography, S. Suresh, (Madras
University), Minnal A. Giridharan and Narasingapuram T. Selvapandian for help
with data analysis and Cuddalore N.Eswari for preparation of study area map.
Abstract: This paper pertains to the
nesting habits of Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus, 1766) with specific
reference to the agricultural landscape of Tindivanam Taluk, Villupuram
District, Tamil Nadu during the breeding period between April and October 2021.
A total of 11,386 nests (wad stage-840, ring stage-478, helmet stage-3,980,
egg-chamber closed stage-2,865, completed nests-2,028, abnormal nests-938, and
damaged nests-257) and 12,600 birds were observed on 832 nest-supporting
plants. Nest-supporting plants belonged to 27 species, 26 genera, and 17 families.
The three principal nest-supporting palm species—Borassus flabellifer, Cocos
nucifera, and Phoenix sylvestris—represented 85.21% of the total
nest-supporting plants. The number of nests (including all the stages) per
colony varied from 1 to 109 and 70.16% nests were oriented towards the east.
Abnormal nests constituted 8.24% of the recorded nests with 17 variations and
90.12% helmet stage nests contained plastering of clay on the inner walls. Nest
predation by House Crow, Large-billed Crow, Asian Koel, Black Drongo, &
Rufous Treepie and killing of adult Baya Weaver by Shikra were recorded.
Keywords: Abnormal nests, associate birds,
clay deposits, foraging behaviours, nest colonies, nest predation, Villupurum
District.
INTRODUCTION
Globally,
India is among the 10 top countries with highest bird species richness
harbouring about 1,332 species (Lepage 2016; Praveen et al. 2020). The family Ploceidae
includes 15 genera and 118 species (Oiveros et al. 2019). The Afro-Asian region
has 64 species of weavers, the genus Ploceus spp. (Dickinson &
Christids 2014), of which four species occur in India (Baya Weaver Ploceus
philippinus, Black-throated Weaver Ploceus benghalensis, Streaked
Weaver Ploceus manyar, and Finn’s Weaver Ploceus megarhynchus)
(Ali & Ripley 1987). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species has classified
Baya Weaver as ‘Least Concern’ species (BirdLife International 2016). Baya
Weaver is a social, gregarious, and polygamous bird, occurring throughout the
Indian subcontinent (Ali & Ambedkar 1956) and also in Java and Sumatra
(Wood 1926). In India, the Baya Weaver breeds between June and November
(Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). Baya Weavers prefer Cocos nucifera
along the western coast of the Indian peninsula, Borassus flabellifer
along the eastern coast, and Vachellia nilotica in the arid north-west
(Sharma 1989). Males usually build partial nests and complete them only after
courting females (Ali et al. 1956). Several authors have stated that nests
almost invariably hang exposed towards an easterly direction so as to be the
least affected by battering winds of the south-west monsoon (Ali 1931; Ambedkar
1964; Davis 1971; Quader 2003; Borges et al. 2012; Pandian & Ahimas 2018;
Pandian 2021a). Nests are built as colonies and the sizes of nest colonies have
been found to vary (Sharma 1989; Borkar & Komarpant 2003; Pandian 2018,
2021a).
The behaviour
of Baya Weaver constructing different types of abnormal nests were reported by
Ali et al. (1956), Ambedkar (1958, 1980), Sharma (1985, 1988, 1995), Borkar
& Komarpant (2003), and Pandian (2018). Plastering of mud/clay on the inner
walls of helmet stage nests is prevalent among Baya Weaver P. philippinus
(Crook 1962). Baya Weavers strictly followed mixed communal roosting and
foraging (Zahavi 1971; Gadgil 1972; Ward & Zahavi 1973; Gadgil & Ali
1975; Pandian 2020). The occurrence of nest predation by avian predators and
fall of nests due to abiotic factors like monsoon rains and battering winds,
also by rival male birds and various anthropogenic factors were reported by Ali
(1931) and Pandian (2021a,b).
In this
paper, I document the quantitative analysis of nests, birds, nest-supporting
plants, roosting and foraging behaviours of Baya Weaver with specific reference
to the agricultural landscape of Tindivanam Taluk, Villupuram District, Tamil
Nadu. The following objectives were kept in mind in the study: (i) Nest tree
use pattern and its microhabitat (power cables, roads, and human dwellings,
water bodies), (ii) Features of nest building including sources of nesting
materials, stages of nest development, orientation, plastering of clay on inner
walls, and abnormalities, (iii) Roosting and foraging behaviours including
preference of crops, and (iv) Interactions with other bird species and threats
faced.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The present study was carried out in 115
villages (Appendix-I) in Tindivanam Taluk (12.236N—79.649E), Villupuram
District, spread over 80 km2. The human population of the district
is c. 500,000 (2011 Census). Agriculture is the primary occupation of the
people here. The major crops of the area are Paddy Oryza sativa,
Jowar Sorghum bicolor, Pearl Millet Pennisetum glaucum, Finger Millet
Eleusine coracana, Foxtail Millet Setaria italica, Sugarcane Saccharum
officinarum (Poaceae), Green Gram Vigna radiata, Groundnut Arachis
hypogaea (Fabaceae), and Cassava Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae).
Small-scale cultivation of ornamental flower, vegetable, fruit, and monoculture
of Cauariana equisetifolia (Equisetaceae) also occurs. The maximum and
minimum temperatures of the district are 36oC and 20oC,
respectively. The average annual rainfall of the district is 1,060 mm (www.viluppuram.nic.in)
(Figure 1).
Methods
With help of
two field assistants, I identified 115 villages in Tindivanam taluk having a
history of habitations of Baya Weavers. These villages were surveyed daily
between 0545–1200 h and 1500–1830 h when the birds were active between the
first week of April and the second week of October 2021. The heights of the
nest-supporting trees were measured using Silva Clinometer while GBH (Girth at
breast height) and distances between the nesting trees and power cables, road,
human dwellings, various type of crop fields were measured using a 100 m
measuring tape. The canopy width was obtained by cross method (Blozan 2006) by
measuring the edge of the canopy shadow on the ground. The distances between
nest-supporting plants and the above-listed factors were grouped under 01–50 m,
51–100 m, 101–150 m, 151–200 m, and >200 m or 01–100 m, 101–200 m, 201–300
m. The locations of the inventoried 832 nest-supporting plants were determined
using a standard GPS (Garmin Etrex 20x). The total number of nests observed on
one nest-supporting plant was considered one nest colony. Using Super Zenith 20
x 50 field binoculars, the number of nests in the colonies, their developmental
stages, abnormalities, damaged nests, clay deposits on inner walls of helmet
stage nests, and number of birds were enumerated. The orientations of the nests
were determined using a ‘Compass App’ in a smart phone iPhone (Model A1530).
Every nest-supporting plant was observed uninterruptedly for 60 min and the
maximum number of birds perched at one time on the nest-supporting plants
during the observation period was determined as the number of birds per plant.
The fallen nests spread over on the ground under the nest-supporting plants
were enumerated. Roosting and foraging behaviours of flocks, preferred plants
for foraging were observed for 20 days (10–29 July 2021) from 0545 to 1830 h,
nest predation by avian predators and interactions with other birds were
observed using binoculars. Utmost care was taken not to disturb the nests or
birds, maintaining a minimum distance of c. 30 m during observations. No live
nests, eggs, chicks, or adult birds were disturbed. Nikon P1000 digital camera
was used for photography and videography.
Data analysis
One-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied to test the differences among the
total number of nests and total number of birds observed on the nest-supporting
plant species such as Borassus flabellifer, Phoenix sylvestris, Cocos
nucifera, Prosopis juliflora, Morinda tinctoria, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Phyllanthus reticulatus, and others by using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Those nest-supporting plant species (n
= 19) which represented more than 10 individuals per species were taken as
separate variables and the plant species which represented less than 10
individuals were grouped as ‘others’ for analysis. Test of significance was
assessed at p = 0.05. The correlation between variables such as GBH (cm),
heights (m) and canopy sizes (m) of nest-supporting plants and the number of
nests enumerated on them was calculated using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient
test. Collected data were tabulated, analysed and shown as graphical
representations.
RESULTS
Baya Weavers and their plant
preference to build nests
A total of
832 nest-supporting plants belonging to 27 species, 26 genera, and 17 families
bearing nests of Baya Weaver were observed in 115 villages in
Tindivanam Taluk. Among the 17 families, three families such as Arecaceae,
Musaceae, and Poaceae are monocotyledons. Family Fabaceae represented a maximum
of seven species, followed by Arecaceae representing three species, Moraceae
and Phyllanthaceae are representing two species each and other 13 families
representing one species each. A total of 12,600 adult birds were counted on
those 832 nest-supporting plants. Maximum 73.69% birds (n = 9,285) were
observed on Borassus flabellifer trees, followed by 11.38% birds (n =
1,434) on Cocos nucifera, 8.94% birds (n = 1,127) on Phoenix
sylvestris, and the remaining 5.99% birds (n = 754) were enumerated on 24
other nest-supporting plant species (Table 1).
Preference of birds to primary
nest-supporting trees to build nests
Among 27 species, the three
primary nest-supporting plant species were palms (Arecaceae), (B.
flabellifer 58.9%, n = 490; P. sylvestris 14.18%, n = 118; and C.
nucifera 12.14%, n = 101), which represented 85.21% (n = 709) of the total
nest-supporting plants (Table 1). Among 490 B. flabellifer trees, 55.10%
were male trees (n = 270) bearing 58.72% nests (n = 4,876) and other 44.9% were
females trees (n = 220) bearing 41.28% nests (n = 3,428). One rare instance of Baya Weaver
constructing a nest on Musa paradisiaca using a torn leaf lamina was
recorded. In another instance, a nest was found attached to the rachilla of
inflorescence of C. nucifera as against the usual practice of birds
constructing nests from tip of leaflets (Image 1).
ANOVA test
reveals that significant differences existed between the type of
nest-supporting plant species and the number of nests (F-value = 7.691, p
<0.001) and birds (F-value = 7.269, p <0.001) at 5% (p <0.05) level of
significance. Analysis also revealed that there existed significant differences
among the three primary nest-supporting plant species and the number of nests
(F-value = 11.155, p <0.001) and number of birds (F- value = 10.589, p
<0.001) at 5% (p <0.05) level of significance. Positive correlation was
observed (r = 0.231) between the number of nests and GBH and tree height of
nest-supporting plants but negative correlation (r = -0.043) existed between
the number of nests and canopy sizes of nest-supporting plants.
Preference of type of lands
The study on
the preference of Baya Weaver towards the type of lands revealed that 89.30%
nest-supporting plants (n = 743) which bore 90.81% nests (n = 10,340) occurred
in cultivated lands; 7.33% nest-supporting plants (n = 61) bearing 2.86% nests
(n = 326) occurred near water bodies; 2.16% plants (n = 18) with 4.72% nests (n
= 537) occurred in fallow lands; and 1.20% plants (n = 10) with 1.61% nests (n
= 183) occurred in residential areas (Figure 2).
Preference of Baya Weaver to
build nests close to grain crops
The study revealed that 65.6% of
nest-supporting plants bearing 65.67% of nests enumerated were situated in crop
lands where cereal grain crops were under cultivation, such as paddy, pearl
millet, finger millet, sorghum, and foxtail millet. Apart from this, 12.5% of
the nest-supporting plants were within 500 m of such crops, while another 21.9%
plants were at a distance of 500–1,000 m from cereal grain crops. This shows
overwhelming preference for crop lands or their vicinity as choice of nesting
colonies (Table 2).
Preference of Baya Weaver in
building nests on plants occurring close to power cables, roads and human
dwellings
The study
also tested the relationship between proximity of overhead transmission power
cables, roads, human dwellings, and selection of nest-supporting plants by
populations of Baya Weaver. The study revealed that maximum nest-supporting
plants, nests and birds occurred within 50 m distance from power cables (Figure
3). The study also revealed that maximum nest-supporting plants, nests, and
birds occurred within 100 m distance from the adjacent roads (Figure 4).
Similarly, maximum nest-supporting plants, and birds occurred within 100 m
distance from human dwellings (Figure 5).
Hedges under nest-supporting
trees
Study on the type of vegetation
covered around the stems of nest-supporting plants revealed that 81.97%
nest-supporting plants (n = 682) lacked any bushes/shrubs around the
stems/trunks, whereas dense shrubs were growing around the bases of stems of
18.03% nest-supporting plants (n = 150). The shrubs around the stems were indentified
as P. juliflora, L. camara, A. indica, S. trilobatum,
S. xanthocarpum, C. carolinus, and F. leucopyrus. These
plants were found thickly covering the basal parts of stems of nest-supporting
plants/trees and probably prevented humans or monkeys from accessing the
plants/trees.
Source of nest materials
The study on the source of nest
materials revealed that Baya Weavers had plucked fibres from three plant
species, such as leaves of Sugarcane, Narrow Leaf Cattail Typha angustifolia,
and leaflets of Indian Date Palm.
Various stages of nests
The enumerated 11,386 nests were
under various developmental stages, viz., wad stage--7.38% (n = 840), ring
stage-4.20% (n = 478), helmet stage-34.96% (n = 3,980), egg-chamber closed
stage-25.16% (n = 2,865), complete nests-17.81% (n = 2,028), abnormal nests-8.24%
(n = 938), and damaged nests-2.26% (n = 257). The study revealed that each
nest-supporting plant bore an average of 13.68 nests (Figure 6).
Orientation of nests
The study
revealed that, 70.16% nests (n = 7,989) were oriented towards the east, facing
the rising sun, followed by 10.55% (n = 1,202) nests oriented towards the west,
14.33% (n = 1,632) nests facing north, and only 0.49% of nests (n = 563) facing
south. Out of 89 solitary nests, 87 nests were found facing an east orientation
and one nest each was found facing north and south orientations. Of the total
nests (n = 7,989) facing towards the east, 69.92% nests (n = 5,586) were found
on B. flabellifer, 11.5% nests (n = 919) on C. nucifera, 11.25%
nests (n = 899) on P. sylvestris, 1.85% nests (n = 148) on P.
juliflora, 1.25% nests (n = 100) on C. equisetifolia and 4.23% nests
(n = 337) were found on the remaining 20 nest-supporting plant species.
Nest colonies
The number of nests (including
all the stages) in each nest colony varied: 78.13% of nest-supporting plants (n
= 650) bore nests between 01–20, whereas 13.46% of nest-supporting plants (n =
112) bore 21–40 nests, 5.5% plants (n = 47) bore 41–60 nests, 2.20% plants (n =
20) bore 61–80 nests, 0.24% plants (n = 2) bore 81–100 nests, and one plant
(0.12%) bore above 100 nests, i.e., 109 nests. A maximum of 109 nests in a
colony were observed on a single B. flabellifer tree in Vengadur Village
(12.228oN, 79.566oE). The study revealed 89 nest colonies
contained solitary nests.
Nests overhanging water bodies
The study revealed that 2.86%
nests (n = 326) including 140 abnormal nests on 61 nest-supporting plants were
overhanging water bodies, i.e., irrigation wells, river, lakes, ponds, and
sewage stagnant water occurring in 20 villages. A total of 372 individuals of
Baya Weavers (2.95%) were observed on those 61 nest-supporting plants. Those
nest-supporting plants (n = 61) belonging to 12 species, such as B.
flabellifer, V. nilotica, P. juliflora, L. camara, A. lebbeck, A.
indica, F. benghalensis, F. religiosa, F. leucopyrus, P. reticulatus,
M.tinctoria and S. siamea were found growing on the edges of
water bodies. Among 326 nests, 244 nests attached to 46 nest-supporting plants
were found in irrigation wells. The remaining 82 nests were attached to 14
nest-supporting plants were observed on the edges of lakes, ponds, river, and
sewage stagnant water. The number of nests per colony was found to be varied. A
maximum of 28 nests was counted on one F. benghalensis tree, followed by
25 nests on one B. flabellifer tree, and 15 nests on one A.
indica. Solitary nests were observed on 15 nest-supporting plants. The study revealed that an average of 5.34
nests per nest-supporting plant was observed. In one instance, a landholder in
Periyathatchur village (12.115oN, 79.523oE) had cleared
all the bushes for the safety of the well and had tied a bunch of dried L.
camara twigs in the well during the fourth week of April 2021 to facilitate
Baya Weavers to build nests and accordingly the birds built seven nests on
those dried twigs during May–June 2021. In Kambur village (12.303oN,
79.771oE), one nest colony containing eight nests was submerged in a
well due to the rising of the water level (Image 2).
Abnormal nests
Abnormal nests constituted 8.24% (n
= 938) of the recorded nests and 17 different types of variations in nests were
noticed: 86.03% (n = 807) abnormal nests were found on B. flabellifer trees
(n = 188), 5.43% (n = 51) abnormal nests on C. nucifera (n = 24), and
5.22% (n = 49) on P. sylvestris (n = 19), and the remaining 31
abnormal nests were found on 10 other nest-supporting plant species. Out of 938
abnormal nests, 56.07 (n = 526) abnormal nests were found on male B.
flabellifer trees whereas 29.95% (n = 281) abnormal nests were found on
female B. flabellifer trees. Seventeen different types of abnormal nests
were recorded: 28.99% (n = 272) abnormal nests belonged to multi-stalked type,
26.65% (n = 250) were 1+1/2 storeyed type, 25.79% (n = 242) were 1+1 storeyed,
and 4.69% (n = 44) were mixed abnormal types. The remaining 13.86% (n = 130)
abnormal nests belonged to other 13 types of abnormal nests. A solitary nest
abnormally having two egg-chambers attached to a common stalk and another
helmet stage nest containing three openings were noticed. Each nest-supporting
plant bore an average of 3.76% abnormal nests (Table 3; Image 3).
Deposit of clay in the nests
The males had plastered the inner
walls of helmet stage nests with wet clay immediately after the completion of
construction of helmet stage nests and before selection of such nests by
females. Out of a total of 11,386 nests, 3,980 nests (35.24%) were found in the
helmet stage. Observation of the inner walls of those helmet stage nests
through binoculars and digital camera revealed that 90.12% helmet stage nests
(n = 3,587) contained plastering of clay on the inner walls. The remaining
9.88% helmet stage nests (n = 393) had no such smearing of clay on their inner
walls. It was not possible to view and study the nature of clay deposits in the
completed nests through binoculars, as the nest chambers were found closed.
Continuous observations revealed no incidents of males taking readily available
wet clay from paddy fields. Between 0600 and 0800 h daily, all the males
swarmed to the adjacent wet fallow lands (200 to 700 m distance from
nest-supporting plants) and scooped the bulk of wet clay through their beaks in
many trips and carried it to helmet stage nests. It was not possible to
ascertain whether the birds added clay on the inner walls after closing of the
egg-chamber and construction of the entrance tube. No females were seen on wet
soil surfaces, scooping clay or carrying it to the nests (Image 5a,b).
Communal roosting and foraging
The study on 20 flocks engaged in
roosting and foraging revealed that the individuals of Baya Weaver always moved
as flocks, the flock size ranging 40–75 birds. All the flocks flew in close
formations by performing complicated manoeuvers and moved out of roosting sites
such as sugarcane crops and P. juliflora bushes between 0600 and 0630 h
daily for foraging. Baya Weavers strictly followed communal roosting and
foraging. They foraged mainly on cereal grain crops but occasional foraging on
other crops/grasses was also observed. Out of twenty flocks studied, 13 flocks
were found foraging on paddy crops. During foraging the flocks used nearby
overhead power transmission cables as transit roosting sites. After foraging,
the flocks split and returned to their nesting colonies in various directions.
Then nest construction activities, roosting and preening continued on the
nest-supporting plants, and adjacent roosting sites. Again they moved as small
flocks for foraging between 1030 and d 1130 h and afterwards some birds
returned to their nesting trees and the remaining roosted on adjacent sugarcane
crops and Prosopis juliflora trees for day roost. Third foraging trips
were observed in the evening period between c. 1600 and 1740 h. After evening
forage, some birds returned to their nesting trees and others moved to adjacent
sugarcane and P. juliflora trees for night roosts. The foraging
continued for a short span of time, i.e., 20 to 50 min and the flocks moved
frequently from one site to another on the foraging crops. Apart from grain
crops, the birds also consumed unripe seeds of S. indicum, C. annuum,
L. camara, and grasses such as S. pallide-fusca & P.
geminatum (Image 4). The foraging flocks contained individuals of other
bird species, such as Tricolored Munia Lonchura malacca, Scaly-breasted
Munia Lonchura punctulata, and White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata
(Table 4).
No individual of Baya Weaver was
found night roosting on the nesting trees during the entire study period. After
evening forage, all the birds used to flee from the nest colonies and roost on
the shrubs/sugarcane crops and return to their nest colonies the next morning.
Continuous monitoring on nest colonies revealed that some females entering
their nests during the evening hours did not come out and it was presumed that
those females might have been incubating their eggs or nestlings.
Threats
A total of 257 nests were found
torn and dangling from the nest-supporting plants, of which 86.38% of damaged
nests (n = 222) were found attached to fronds of B. flabellifer trees,
4.67% damaged nests each (n = 12) were found on C. nucifera and P.
sylvestris, respectively, and the remaining 4.28 % damaged nests (n = 11)
occurred on other nest-supporting plants, such as P. reticulatus, P.
juliflora, F. benghalensis, and F. leucopyrus. Among 257
nests, 47 nests had circular openings opposite egg-chambers (Image 5c,d,e).
The survey revealed that apart
from 11,386 nests enumerated, a total of 1,050 nests in various stages (helmet
stage-45.80%, n = 481; egg-chamber closed stage-21.90%, n = 230; complete
nests-30%, n = 315; and abnormal nest-2.28%, n = 24) had fallen from 163
nest-supporting plants and were found scattered on the ground. During the study
period, 25 eggs and 18 dead chicks were found in the fallen nests. Among 1,050
fallen nests, 72.66% nests (n = 763) were found under 113 B. flabellifer
trees, whereas 16% fallen nests (n = 168) were under 25 P. sylvestris
trees, 9.71% fallen nests (n = 102) were under 21 C. nucifera trees,
1.05% fallen nests (n = 11) under two P. reticulatus, 0.48% fallen nests
(n = 5) under solitary C.equisetifolia tree, and a solitary nest (0.10%)
was found under one V. nilotica tree (Image 5f,g,h).
Threats
The study revealed that the
farmers have the practice of clearing bushes around irrigation wells every year
for their safety. When it involved destruction of nest-supporting plants, it
would cause lack/scarcity of nesting substrata for the birds. Burning of
herbs/shrubs under nest-supporting trees before commencement of cultivation
every year resulting in smoke and fire drove away birds. In Kilvailamur
villages, the land holders pruned the leaves of C. nucifera trees to
avoid nesting of Baya Weavers with the intention of protecting cereal grain
crops and 34 nests were found attached to the pruned leaves. It was observed
that farmers of Rettanai had plucked the nests from trees using a hook tied to
bamboo sticks to avoid possible damage to grain crops by Baya Weavers. In
Kambur Village, a nest colony containing eight nests had been submerged in the
irrigation well due to the rising of the water level after monsoon rains and
the birds had to abandon the site (Table 5).
There were opportunistic
sightings of 10 species of other birds, such as House Crow Corvus splendens,
Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorynchus, Shikra Accipiter badius,
Rufous Treepie Dendricitta vagabunda, Black Kite Milvus migrans,
Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus, Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus,
White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata, Common Myna Acridotheres tristis,
and Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis on the nest colonies. Seventeen
incidents of nest damages by House Crow, Large-billed Crow, Rufous Treepie,
Black Drongo, and Asian Koel were observed during the study, whereas no
antagonistic relationships existed between Baya Weavers and Common Myna and
Indian Roller. Rufous Treepie had plucked fibres and made a circular opening on
the anterior side of egg-chamber and inserted their heads (Image 5a). In seven instances, individuals of Black
Drongo had plucked fibres from nests and caused damage to the nests. Seven
nests (helmet-1 & complete nests-6) of Baya Weaver were occupied by
White-rumped Munia and no antagonistic relationship was observed between these
two species. It was not possible to ascertain whether the individuals of
White-rumped Munia occupied abandoned nests or by usurping the nests from
resident Baya Weavers. No incident of either damage to nests or killing of
adult birds by Black Kites was noticed, but Baya Weavers were seen to be
frightened and fleeing from the nesting colonies when a Black Kite landed on
nesting trees (Table 5; Image 6).
DISCUSSION
Baya Weavers and their preference
of plants to build nests
Baya Weavers used B.
flabellifer trees extensively for construction of nests in the eastern
parts of peninsular India (Sharma 1989). Davis (1974) indicated that 60% of
nests occurred on both B. flabellifer and C. nucifera. In the
present study, I found that Baya Weavers preferred B. flabellifer (58.9%;
n = 490), since 72.93% of nests (n = 8,304) occurred on them. It was also
observed that Baya Weavers preferred more male B. flabellifer trees (55.10%;
n = 270) than female trees (44.9%; n = 220) for construction of nests. The
probable reasons for preferring male trees might be due to less human
disturbance faced by male trees as compared to female trees. However the exact
causes for such a preference will require further investigation. In one
instance, a male bird constructed a nest by plaiting a knot encircling the
stems of Cocculus carolinus, Prosopis juliflora, and rachis of Phoenix
sylvestris. In another case the nest was found attached to the tip of stems
of Prosopis juliflora and S. trilobatum.
Ambedkar (1969) had stated that Baya Weavers of
different regions preferred different plant species for construction of nests.
He also recorded six species in Tamil Nadu, viz., B. flabellifer, P.
sylvestris, C. nucifra, P. dulce, T. indica, and Acacia
spp. Birds used 25 plant species as nesting substrata in Uttar Pradesh (Mathew
1972) and 17 plant species in Arakkonam taluk of Tamil Nadu (Pandian 2021a). In
the present study, 27 plant species have been recorded including the six
species as recorded by Ambedkar (1969).
Preference of Baya Weavers in
building nests on plants occurring close to power cables, roads and human
dwelling
As a social bird, Baya Weavers
generally prefer to live near agricultural areas with significant human
activity. For example, Ali (2009) found that the Weaver populations used
electricity lines as fetching sites for collection of food and nesting
materials. Ninety-three percent of nest-supporting plants occurred in close
proximity to power cables, 64% nest-supporting plants near roads, and 86%
nest-supporting plants near human dwellings were reported in Villupuram
district (Pandian & Ahimas 2018). In the present study, the maximum
nest-supporting plants occurred close to power cables that passed through crop
fields and they were used as fetching and roosting sites while foraging,
collection of nesting materials and feeding broods. The birds selected
apparently nest-supporting plants that occurred in close proximity to roads
with busy vehicular traffic and human dwellings close to cultivated lands
hence, this matches with the findings of Ali (2009) and (Pandian & Ahimas
2018).
Source of nest materials
The nest materials used by Baya
Weavers were found to vary according to the locality. In India, the birds used
leaf fibres of C. nucifera and P. sylvestris except in the north
(Dewar 1909). Baya Weavers used fibres from grass and palm fronds to construct
nests in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka, India, Africa, and Seychelles
(Wood 1926; Crook 1962), leaves of Phoenix sp., coarse grass and paddy
in Kolaba district, Maharashtra (Ali 1931), and Phoenix sp., paddy,
millets, coconut, and lemon grass in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh
(Mathew 1972). The present findings of birds using fibres of P. sylvestris
for construction of nests partly matches with the observations of Dewar (1909),
Wood (1926), Ali (1931), Crook (1962), Mathew (1972), and Davis (1974). Apart
from P. sylvestris, the birds used leaves of S. officinarum and T.
angustifolia as nest materials in the study area.
Orientation of nests
Nests of Baya Weavers were found
hanging in an easterly direction to protect the nests from winds of the
south-west monsoon in the Northern Province of Ceylon (Wood 1926). Many authors
have commented on the occurrence of more nests on the eastern side (windward)
of the plants as protection from strong monsoon winds (Ali 1931; Ambedkar 1964;
Davis 1971; Quader 2003). The nests of the White-browed Sparrow (Plocepasser
mahali) constructed on the windward side of trees suffered more damage than
those on leeward side (Ferguson & Siegfried 1989). It was reported that
40.4% nest colonies in Rajasthan (Sharma 1990), 87% nests in Chorao Island, Goa
(Borges et al. 2012), 88.6% of nests in Tindivanam taluk (Pandian & Ahimas
2018), and 80.86% of nests in Arakkonam taluk, Tamil Nadu (Pandian 2021a) were
oriented towards the east probably to protect their nests from the battering
south-west monsoon winds. In the present study also, 70.16% nests were found
hanging towards the east, hence it matches with the findings of Wood (1926),
Ali (1931), Ambedkar (1964), Davis (1971), Quader (2003), Borges et al. (2012),
Pandian & Ahimas (2018), and Pandian (2021a). Sharma (1990) observed all
solitary nests faced other than the eastern side in Rajasthan whereas in the
present study, 97.7% solitary nests (n = 87) were found facing the eastern
side, hence it contradicts the observations of Sharma (1990).
Nesting colonies
Baya Weaver is a colony-nester
and the number of nests in each colony has been reported to be varied: 1–250
nests in Rajasthan (Sharma 1989), 5–24 nests in South Goa (Borkar &
Komarpant 2003), 1–93 nests in Villupuram district (Pandian 2018), and 1–61
nests in Vellore district, Tamil Nadu (Pandian 2021a). In the present study
also, the number of nests per colony was found between 1–109.
A total of 27 solitary nests were
recorded on A. Arabica trees in Satna district of Madhya Pradesh (Pandey
1991), 22 solitary nests in Arakkonam taluk (Pandian 2021a) and now I recorded
89 solitary nests in the study area. Nest colonies with small numbers of nests
tend to be more likely to be abandoned than large and established ones, as Baya
Weavers are of a more shifting nature (Ali et al. 1956). The present
enumeration of less than 20 nests in 78.13% of nest colonies (including
solitary nests on 89 nest-supporting plants) indicates that the present nest
colonies are found weak, not well-established as stated by Ali (1931).
Nests overhanging water bodies
Many authors have reported the
occurrence of nests of Baya Weaver hanging over water bodies (Ali 1931;
Ambedkar 1964; Collias & Collias 1964; Crook 1964; Davis 1974; Khan 1799;
Subramanya 1982; Sharma 1987). Nests on plants hanging over water bodies in
South Goa were reported by Borkar & Komarpant (2003), in Parbati hill,
Poona by Crook (1960), in Nanded region, Maharashtra by Achegawe et al.
(2016), and in Assam, by Yashmita-Ulman et al. 2017. In Tamil Nadu, 3.2%
of nests in Tindivanam taluk (Pandian 2018) and 4.38 % nests in Arakkonam
taluk, Tamil Nadu (Pandian 2021a) were found hanging over water bodies. During
the present study, 2.86% nests (n = 140) were found hanging over irrigation
wells, canals and ponds, as reported in many other studies (Khan 1799; Ali
1931; Ambedkar 1964; Collias & Collias 1964; Crook 1964; Davis 1974;
Subramanya 1982; Sharma 1987; Borkar & Komarpant 2003; Pandian 2018,
2021a). The reason for birds selecting nest-supporting plants close to water bodies
is attributed to the safety of the nests and broods from terrestrial predators
(Davis 1974). Sharma (1987) recorded four nest-supporting plants, namely Calotropis
procera, Cordia gharaf (= Cordia sinensis), Adhatoda
vasica, and Cynodon dactylon, bearing nests found hanging
over wells and water bodies in Rajasthan. Pandian (2021a) had recorded eight
nest-supporting plant species bearing nests, namely V. nilotica, P.
juliflora, B. flabellifer, P. sylvestris, C. nucifera,
P. reticulatus, F. religiosa, and Ziziphus oenoplia
growing on the edges of water bodies in Arakkonam Taluk, Tamil Nadu. But in the
present study, 12 plant species bearing nests which were not recorded by Sharma
(1987) in Rajasthan were observed. It indicates that the preference of nest-supporting
plants by Baya Weavers near water bodies is found to vary in different
geographic regions.
Abnormal nests
Abnormal nesting behaviour of
Baya Weaver was reported by Ali et al. (1956) and Ambedkar (1958, 1980) in
Pune, Maharashtra, and Sharma (1985, 1988, 1995) in Rajasthan. Borkar &
Komarpant (2003) listed 13 distinct types of anomalous nests in South Goa. In
Tamil Nadu, 15 types of abnormal nests in Tindivanam Taluk and eight types of
abnormal nests in Arakkonam taluk were reported (Pandian 2018, 2021a). Now 17
types of abnormal nests were recorded in the study area, hence it matches with
the observations of the above said authors.
Abnormal nesting behaviour also
occurs in other species of the genus Ploceus. For example,
Southern-masked Weaver P. velatus constructs one of the most abnormal
nests among the Weaver birds in South Africa, Angola, Zambia and Mozambique
(www.weavers.adu.org). Black-throated Weaver P. benghalensis builds an
abnormal entrance tube of more than a metre length (Mishra 2004) and Spectacled
Weaver P. ocularis constructs an abnormal entrance tube with a two-metre
length in southern Africa (Maclean 1985). African Weaver P. cucullatus
constructs an abnormal nest with supernumerary antechamber or bottomless or
canopy type nests with variations in the entrance tubes (Collias & Collias
1962; Crook 1963). Intraspecific variations in the length of entrance tubes are
found in the nests of Streaked Weaver (P. manyar) and Sakalava Weaver (P.
sakalava). The Streaked Weaver constructs a nest with a short entrance tube
in reeds in India, but with a long entrance tube in trees in Java (Delacour
1947) and the Sakalava Weaver constructs a nest with a short entrance tube in
the arid habitats and a long entrance tube in the other habitats in Madagascar.
Hence, like other species of Ploceus, Baya Weavers are also found to
have constructed abnormal nests with 17 variations in the study area.
Deposition of clay
It was found that plastering of
clay by males started when the nest construction was in the helmet stage, as
also reported in other studies (Dewar 1909; Ali 1931; Borkar & Komarpant
2003). According to Davis (1973), wet mud smudging in nests takes place prior
to pairing with females. The behavior of deposition of mud on the inner walls
of nests is also prevalent among the other species of Ploceus, viz.,
Black-breasted Weaver P. benghalensis and Streaked Weaver P. manyar (Crook
1962). Wood (1926) suggested that plastering of clay helps to stabilize
the nest in strong winds and also speculated that it might have been the habit
of some ancestors of Baya Weaver, which built nests entirely or partly made of
mud. Crook (1963) and Davis (1973) opined that mud plaster gives reinforcement
to the fibres when the female conducts violent examination prior to her
selection of nests. Ali (1931) and Sharma (1996) stated that intricate ethology
is behind this peculiar habit of plastering and hence it requires further
research. In this study, 90.12% helmet stage nests (n = 3,587) contained clay
deposits on the inner nest walls and the exact reasons for plastering of clay
needs further study as stated by Ali (1931) and Sharma (1996).
Communal roosting and foraging
The mixed communal roosting
consisting of different bird species serves as a centre for the exchange of
information regarding the locations of food sources and warning signals about
the approach of predators (Zahavi 1971; Gadgil 1972; Ward & Zahavi 1973;
Gadgil & Ali 1975). Pandian (2020) had observed communal foraging and
roosting of Baya Weaver in Ranipet district, Tamil Nadu. In the present study,
flocks containing individuals of Baya Weaver, Tricolored Munia, Scaly-breasted
Munia, and White-rumped Munia moved collectively without any competition over
sharing of food and roosting sites. The behaviour of mixed roosting of four
different species might have shared information on sources of cereal grain
crops and protection from predators as stated by Gadgil (1972), Zahavi (1971),
Ward & Zahavi (1973), Gadgil & Ali (1975). The food of the adult Baya
Weaver comprises of cereal grains, grasses, weeds, flower nectar, and insects
(Ali & Ripley 1987), paddy and weed seeds (Mukherjee & Saha 1974),
paddy grains followed by bajra and sorghum (Ali et al. 1978). In the present
study, the birds preferred cereal grain crops mainly paddy, pearl millet,
finger millet and foxtail millet, grasses and a weed L. camara as
observed by Ali & Ripley (1987) and Ali et al. (1978). Additionally Baya
Weavers foraging on seeds of sesame and chilli crops were observed in the
current study.
Threats
The males made openings on the
nests from the outside directly into the egg-chamber to feed the chicks (Wood
1926). Borges et al. (2002) observed eight nests with a hole near the
egg-chamber in Goa. Ali et al. (1956) felt that most circular holes bored
opposite the egg-chamber recorded in nests in Pune, Maharashtra, could have
been caused by predators. Rufous Treepie made a circular opening near the
egg-chamber and predated eggs/chicks (Pandian 2021a). In the present study, a
total of 257 damaged nests were found attached to the nest-supporting plants,
of which 47 nests had circular holes near the egg chambers confirming that
individuals of Rufous Treepie made circular holes on six nests corroborating
the findings of Ali (1931) and Pandian (2021a). Another 11 nests were damaged
by House Crows, Large-billed Crows, Black Drongos, and Asian Koels. The reasons
for damages in the remaining 240 nests were not possible to ascertain during
the present study.
Many complete nests were blown
down due to recurring spells of bad weather during June–August in the Bombay
area and the males cutting down the nest of rival cocks was common when the
owner had gone to fetch nesting materials in Poona City (Ali et al. 1956). The
males usually had the habit of cutting down their own nests, including those
rejected by females and complete nests after broods have departed (Collias
& Collias 1959, 1962). An instance of male Baya Weaver cutting down a
complete nest occupied by White-rumped Munia was recorded in Villupuram
district (Pandian 2021b). In the present study, a total of 1,050 nests had
fallen down from the nest colonies. A total of 25 eggs and 18 dead chicks were
found spread near fallen nests. The occurrence of such a great number of fallen
nests may have been due to various
biotic and abiotic factors as suggested by Ali et al. (1957), Collias &
Collias (1959, 1962), and Pandian (2021b) and it needs further study.
House Crows and Large-billed
Crows were the major predators of nests, eggs and broods (Ali 1956). Nest
predation by Rufous Treepie was reported in Arakkonam taluk, Tamil Nadu
(Pandian 2021a). Agitated behaviour of birds when Crow Pheasants Centropus
sinensis appeared in close proximity of nesting trees and a Shikra making
an unsuccessful stoop on a nest colony was observed in Kolaba district,
Maharashtra (Ali 1931). In the present study, individuals of Baya Weavers had
exhibited an agitated behaviour when House Crows and Large-billed Crows landed
on nesting trees and two incidents of predation on adult male birds by Shikra
and 17 incidents of nest damages by avian predators, such as House Crow,
Large-billed Crow, Asian Koel, Black Drongo, and Rufous Treepie were observed
as stated by Ali (1931), Ali (1956), and Pandian (2021a) hence, these predators posed a threat to the
populations of Baya Weaver in the study area.
CONCLUSION
This is a systematic quantitative
study on the preference of Baya Weaver towards various nest-supporting plants
as nesting substrata, stages of nests, abnormal nests and probable threats to
the nests on such nesting plants in the study area. The survey revealed that
out of 27 plant species, Baya Weavers preferred three primary nest-supporting
palm species, such as B. flabellifer, C. nucifera, and P.
sylvestris for nesting. These three palms are an integral part of rural
areas and they are also associated with rural cottage industries. The birds
preferred nests on plants close to power cables, roads and human dwellings.
Maximum nest-supporting plants occurred in cereal grain crop land. Probably the
nests are located on the eastern side of trees to protect them from the strong
south-west monsoon winds. High variations of nests (17 types of abnormal nests)
were reported. The birds strictly followed mixed communal roosting and foraging.
Nest predation by avian predators was also found. Increasing urbanization by
conversion of cultivated lands into residential areas, industrialization,
widening of roads along with indiscriminate felling of these principal
nest-supporting plants that are vital for Baya Weaver is a conservation issue
in this landscape. Increasing practice of monoculture of Casuarina,
sugarcane, vegetables, and flower crops, declining areas of cultivation of
cereals and millets cause shortage of food grains to adult birds. Destruction
of nests due to various anthropogenic factors and abiotic factors (monsoon
winds and rains) may also affect the breeding of the Baya Weaver. The survey is
limited to one taluk, but this is part of a larger geographical area that has a
potential for high nesting population of the Baya Weaver which, however, faces
threats from the changing rural landscape. Therefore, a conservation program
focused on Baya Weaver could be taken up in the area, primarily through
protection of nests and birds, keeping a check on anthropogenic threats, along
with a sensitization program for local farmers towards conservation.
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Appendix I. List of villages
having nesting habitats of Baya Weaver in Tindivanam taluk, Villupuram
district.
|
Name of the village |
|
Name of the village |
|
Name of the village |
1 |
Mambakkam |
41 |
Muppuri |
81 |
Then Kalavay |
2 |
Sembakkam |
42 |
Pandamangalam |
82 |
Annamputtur |
3 |
Mel Siviri |
43 |
Kenippattu |
83 |
Kovadi |
4 |
Konalur |
44 |
Kodima |
84 |
Manur |
5 |
Attippakkam |
45 |
Manthagapattu |
85 |
Roshanai |
6 |
Neduntondi |
46 |
Alagraman |
86 |
Ural |
7 |
Vellimedupettai |
47 |
Soli Sokkunam |
87 |
Karuvapakkam |
8 |
Vada Siruvalur |
48 |
Kutterippattu |
88 |
Vairapuram |
9 |
Taniyal |
49 |
Chinna Nerkunam |
89 |
Tengapakkam |
10 |
Puliyanur |
50 |
Kizhavaliyamur |
90 |
Evallur |
11 |
Ilamangalam |
51 |
V. Nallalam |
91 |
Purangarai |
12 |
Akkur |
52 |
Se. Kotamangalam |
92 |
Konerikuppam |
13 |
Vilukkam |
53 |
Nedi |
93 |
Saram |
14 |
Tivanur |
54 |
V. Panchalam |
94 |
Kil Gudalur |
15 |
Salai |
55 |
Sendiyambakkam |
95 |
Vithalapuram |
16 |
Kollar |
56 |
Mozhiyanur |
96 |
Kattalai |
17 |
Kattusiviri |
57 |
Periathachur |
97 |
Nolambur |
18 |
Pampundi |
58 |
Perani |
98 |
Ayyanavaram |
19 |
Peramandur |
59 |
Palapattu |
99 |
Eppakkam |
20 |
Pattanam |
60 |
Chittani |
100 |
Kuttikulattur |
21 |
Pelakuppam |
61 |
Elay |
101 |
Kambur |
22 |
Tindivanam |
62 |
Andipalayam |
102 |
Vada Kalavay |
23 |
Bootheri |
63 |
Pombur |
103 |
Avanippur |
24 |
Singanur |
64 |
Ganapathipattu |
104 |
Sendamangalam |
25 |
Then Pasiyar |
65 |
Anganikuppam |
105 |
Kil Mannur |
26 |
Vempundi |
66 |
Athikuppam |
106 |
Andappattu |
27 |
Muttiyur |
67 |
Vidur |
107 |
Kil Serur |
28 |
Peramandur |
68 |
Padirippuliyur |
108 |
Kil Buderi |
29 |
Goplalapuram |
69 |
Ten Alappakkam |
109 |
Senalur |
30 |
Mel Peradikuppam |
70 |
Kuralur |
110 |
Vandarampundi |
31 |
Vengandur |
71 |
Chendur |
111 |
Naramagani |
32 |
Kongarampet |
72 |
Velangambadi |
112 |
Kil Nemali |
33 |
Nanalmedu |
73 |
Siruvai |
113 |
Kunnapakkam |
34 |
Narerikuppam |
74 |
Veliyanur |
114 |
Mandaperumbakkam |
35 |
Rattanai |
75 |
Kallakulattur |
115 |
Mettunatham |
36 |
Annankulathumedu |
76 |
Nallamur |
|
|
37 |
Maroor |
77 |
Kannigapuram |
|
|
38 |
Thavalapattu |
78 |
Kil Idaiyalam |
|
|
39 |
Then Puthur |
79 |
Vairampattu |
|
|
40 |
Peramapttu |
80 |
Avanampattu |
|
|