Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 March 2022 | 14(3): 20733–20739
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7575.14.3.20733-20739
#7575 | Received 16
July 2021 | Final received 09 March 2022 | Finally accepted 12 March 2022
Status and distribution of Mugger
Crocodile Crocodylus palustris
in the southern stretch of river Cauvery in Melagiris,
India
Rahul Gour
1, Nikhil Whitaker 2 &
Ajay Kartik 3
1 Kenneth Anderson Nature Society,
No.9/2, HCF Post, Mathigiri, Hosur, Tamil Nadu
635110, India.
1 Department of Ecology &
Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University,
Puducherry 605014, India.
2,3 Madras Crocodile Bank Trust and
Centre for Herpetology, 4, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu
603104, India.
1 rahulkgour@gmail.com (corresponding
author), 2 nikhil@madrascrocodilebank.org, 3 ajaykartik88@gmail.com
Editor: Raju Vyas, Vadodara, Gujarat,
India. Date of publication: 26 March 2022
(online & print)
Citation: Gour,
R., N. Whitaker & A. Kartik (2022). Status and
distribution of Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus
palustris in the southern stretch of river
Cauvery in Melagiris, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 14(3): 20733–20739. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7575.14.3.20733-20739
Copyright: © Gour
et al. 2022. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The present work
received no external
funding.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Rahul Gour recently graduated from Pondicherry University with a master’s degree
in ecology and environmental sciences.
He has associated with Kenneth Anderson Nature Society on various
conservation projects in Melagiris. He is
particularly interested in learning about the behavioural
ecology of reptiles and megafauna. Nikhil Whitaker is a curator at the
Madras Crocodile Bank Trust and Centre for Herpetology. He has studied
environmental science and wildlife management at Charles Darwin University in
Australia. An editor at journals including Taprobanica,
Journal of Contemporary Herpetology, and Herpetological Review, and a member of
the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist group and Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle
Specialist Group. Ajay Kartik is a herpetologist with a keen
interest in the behavioural ecology of reptiles. He
has worked with diverse species across several landscapes of India and is an
invited member of the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist group and Tortoise and
Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group.
Authors contribution: RG—contributed to the fieldwork
and manuscript writing; NW—contributed to the work design, technical guidance
and review of the manuscript; AJ—contributed to the field support and review of
the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: On behalf of Kenneth Anderson
Nature Society and Madras Crocodile Bank Trust and Centre for Herpetology, we
thank Mr. Deepak Bilgee IFS, district forest officer,
Hosur Forest Division, Tamil Nadu Forest Department for granting necessary
permissions and supporting us during the course of this study. We are thankful
to the range forest officers and field staff of Anchetty
and Urigam ranges for helping us conduct the surveys.
We thank Arvind Adhi, Laxmeesha Acharya, Prem Kumar Aparanji, Prasanna Vyanatheya, and Jason Gerard for leading multiple surveys
during the course of the study. We also thank the students of College of
Forestry, Kerala and members of Kenneth Anderson Nature Society for
volunteering for the surveys. We are also thankful to George Tom for helping
with the illustrations (Image 2 & 3) and reviewing an early draft of this
paper.
Abstract: A study was conducted to examine
the population estimate and spatial distribution of Mugger Crocodile in the
southern stretch of river Cauvery, Hosur Forest Division from February 2019 to
May 2019. In total, 53 basking sites and 45 Muggers were encountered by direct
sighting in the 24-km river stretch using daytime ground based survey approach.
N-mixture models estimated an average Mugger density of 2.05 individuals per
kilometre for daytime survey. A night spotlight survey across the seven
segments of river stretch was also conducted which yielded direct sightings of
54 Muggers with an average encounter rate of 2.25 individuals per kilometre.
Two crocodile nests with hatched egg shells were also observed on the sand
banks of the river. We concluded that a potential healthy and breeding
population of Mugger inhabits the studied stretch of the river. Multiple
corresponding analysis was also performed, which demonstrated that Mugger
responds to sandy banks alongside deep water pools for basking in contrast to river
segments with shallow depth and dense riparian cover.
Keywords: Basking sites, conservation,
Hosur Forest Division, nest, night spotlight survey, N-mixture models.
INTRODUCTION
The Marsh or Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson,
1831) (Image 1), is an apex predator and can be found in different forms of
freshwater environment including rivers, ponds, reservoirs, marshes, and also
inhabits estuarine habitats (Whitaker 1987; Whitaker & Whitaker 1989). Its
range extends from southern Iran to the Indian subcontinent and is one of the
most adaptable crocodilian species in India (Da Silva & Lenin 2010). The
Mugger is legally protected in India under Schedule I of the Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972, and categorized as ‘Vulnerable’ under the IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species (Choudhury & De Silva 2013). Awareness about
crocodile distribution and the ecosystem services provided by them is essential
to better conserve the species and their habitats. An increasing number of studies
have focused on the distribution of Mugger in various parts of India (Rao &
Choudhury 1993; Singh 1999; Vyas 2012). Here we present the distribution and
population status of Muggers in the small stretch of Cauvery river that runs
through dense riparian forests of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
Study site
Cauvery (also known as Kaveri) is
a perennial river that originates in the Brahmagiri
range of the Western Ghats, Karnataka. The river enters Tamil Nadu through the
Hosur Forest Division in Krishnagiri district leading
to the flat plains where it meanders. A continuous river stretch of 24 km was
chosen to conduct the survey starting from Dabaguli
(12.205N, 77.545E) upstream to Moslaemaduvu (12.149N,
77.748E) downstream (Figure 1). The region comes under the Melagiri
Hill ranges which is an important wildlife habitat between the Western and
Eastern Ghats (Daniel & Ishwar 1994; Tiwari & Kaliamoorthy
2018). This region has a semi-arid climate. The average temperature during
winter reaches a minimum of 16°C and a maximum of 40°C during summer. It
receives rainfall mainly during the north-east monsoon (October–December) and
low rainfall from south-west monsoon (June–September), which ranges 750–800 mm
(Shenoy et al. 2006). The study section of the river flows through valleys and
forests, with the Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka in the south and the
dense reserve forests under Hosur Forest Division, Tamil Nadu in the north.
Vegetation along the river section mainly consists of dry deciduous forest and
southern tropical dry thorn riverine forests (Baskaran et al. 2011).
Method
The entire survey which included
reconnaissance and preliminary surveys followed by replication surveys for
daytime and night spotlight surveys, were conducted over the course of four
months (February–May 2019) during the dry season.
Reconnaissance and preliminary
survey: These surveys were carried out over the 24-km river stretch to explore
site characteristics and to collect adequate data for planning and survey
design.
Daytime survey: The 24-km stretch
of the river was divided into seven segments (Table 1) that served as seven
different sites for temporal replicated surveys. Out of the 24-km of total
river section, a 4.2-km segment was not surveyed due to insufficient water
level in the river to row the coracle (a small, rounded lightweight boat) and
lack of accessibility for the survey team to walk due to dense thorn forest
along the river. Hence, the survey was carried out at the remaining six
replicated sites (six river segments). Each site was surveyed on five
occasions. The daylight survey was taken place with a minimum of seven days and
a maximum of 10 days’ time space between each survey occasion. The surveys were
carried out on foot along the river and by rowing coracle where riverbanks are
inaccessible on foot. Teams of two to three observers recorded direct basking
counts during maximum basking activity times, 0700–1000 h and 1500–1800 h
(Venugopal & Prasad 2003). The survey team also searched for potential nests
and nesting activities such as digging, presence of eggs or shells along the
river banks. The locations of direct and indirect signs (scat, spoor, basking
and nest sites) of Muggers were recorded by using a GPS instrument (Garmin eTrex 20x). Animals were observed with Olympus binocular
(10 x 50) and wherever possible images of Mugger and their habitat were
recorded using a digital camera. The number of individuals detected in a given
site were counted using standard monitoring techniques.
Spotlight survey: After
completion of daytime replicated surveys, the same six sites (river segments)
were used for conducting a night spotlight survey using coracles. All the six
sites were surveyed at the same time by six different survey teams. Available
spotlight survey procedure was carried out to perform night surveys (Messel et
al. 1981; Bayliss 1987; Lentic & Connors 2006).
At each segment of the river, all coracles were operated between 2000 h and
2300 h. Coracles were operated at about 2 m from and parallel to the shoreline,
and one observer was stationed at the front in each coracle in addition to a
fellow observer to record the data. A speed of 5–8 km/hr was maintained. A
high-powered (1000+ lumen) searchlight was used by the observer during the
survey, which produced a readily detectable eye shine up to a distance of
approximately 100 m. When an eye shine was spotted, the Mugger was approached
closer to obtain a size estimate. We assigned four size classes to the Muggers
based on Andrews (1999): hatchlings (<0.5 m TL), small/juveniles (0.5–1.0 m
TL), medium/subadults (1.0–1.5 m TL), and large/adults (>1.5 m TL). Unknown
size classes when only eye shine was visible were categorized as eyes only
(EO).
Measure of abundance: Appropriate
measure of abundance was chosen instead of a total population count as not all
mugger crocodiles present in the area were observed for the each survey. For
the daytime survey, N-mixture models were employed to estimate abundance based
on repeated counts in a given site (Royle 2004; Dail & Madsen 2011). Since capture and manipulating of
individuals are not required in N-mixture models and they also allow collecting
abundance information over larger areas compared to traditional techniques (Kéry et al. 2009; Griffiths et al. 2015). The lengths of
the river segments (sites) were considered as a site level covariate, and the
sampling hours were considered as observational covariates which were recorded
during each survey occasion for each site. We used R package ‘unmarked’ for
N-mixture modelling to estimate abundance (Fiske & Chandler 2011). However,
because the night spotlight survey was conducted only once at all sites, we
considered the total spotted individuals as a relative index of abundance for
night spotlight survey (Bayliss 1987; Cherkiss et al. 2006; Fukuda et al. 2012).
Association and correlation:
Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was carried out to measure the
association among the habitat features and occurrence of Muggers. It is an
adaptation of corresponding analysis to a data table containing more than two
categorical variables (Greenacre & Blasius 2006). MCA can also be seen as a
generalisation of principal component analysis (PCA) when the variables to be analysed
are categorical instead of quantitative (Abdi & Williams 2010). We
specifically selected 10 categorical variables which were most dominant habitat
features found in each river segment during the daytime surveys. We used R
packages ‘FactoMineR’ for the MCA analysis and ‘factoextra’ for ggplot2-based visualization (Le et al.
2008; Wickham 2009; Kassambara & Mundt 2020).
All
the map layouts were created using QGIS and Google Earth. Abundance and
association measurements were carried out using open source software R v3.6.2
(R Core Team 2021).
RESULTS
We found 53 potential basking
sites along the river section based on the frequent and numerous indirect
signs, mainly spoors. During five repeated counts, we encountered a total of 45
Mugger Crocodiles by direct sighting which includes 12 adults (>1.5 m TL),
nine sub-adults (1.0–1.5 m TL), 15 juveniles (0.5–1.0 m TL), and nine without
any concrete size estimate. In N-mixture models, we selected the model with
Poisson error, as it showed AIC values lower than the respective zero-inflated
Poisson (ZIP) model (86.97 vs. 88.98). Assuming homogeneous density in the
survey area, N-mixture models estimated an average mugger crocodile density of
2.05 individuals per kilometre. During daytime ground based surveys two nests
were also observed very close to the riverbank on the sandy substrate (Image
2). At the first nest, 13 empty
eggshells, of which two had failed to hatch were observed. Near the
first nest, three hatchlings (<0.5 m TL) were also observed in water and at
the second nest, 11 freshly hatched eggs shells, and five hatchlings with an
adult crocodile were spotted in the river. It should be borne in mind that all
the available nests in the study site are not represented in our nesting
observations, as search effort for nests was not standardized among the river
section and observers.
Night spotlight survey yielded
direct sightings of 54 Muggers which includes 14 adults, seven sub-adults, five
juveniles, and 28 with eyes only (EO) recorded in the targeted river section
(Image 3). A relative abundance of 2.25 individuals per kilometre was obtained
during spotlight survey, comparatively higher than the daytime survey. We also
observed the basking banks with deep-water river segments as the key
determinant explaining the relatively high occurrences of mugger crocodiles.
MCA biplots also displayed greater squared cosine values for deep pools, sandy
banks and runs which shows the higher quality of representation (Figure 2A).
And while comparing the river segments with shallow depth and dense riparian
cover, the availability of sandy banks for basking alongside deep water pools
revealed a substantially higher abundance as shown in Figure 2B, which also
complemented with our field observations.
In addition to Muggers various
other threatened species like Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale
perspicillata, Leith’s Softshell Turtle Nilssonia leithii,
Asian Elephant Elephas maximus, Sloth Bear Melursus
ursinus, and Lesser Fish Eagle Icthyophaga humilis were also observed a few
occasions in the study area. Most of the river stretch was facing unrestricted
fishing pressure. Human activities and livestock along the river stretch
appeared to negatively influence the use of areas by Muggers. During the entire
study period, no crocodile attacks were observed.
DISCUSSION
The present study with successful
nesting and hatching records suggested the presence of a potential breeding
population of Mugger along the targeted stretch of the river. It also
demonstrated that Muggers preferred river sections with a wider width and
greater depth while avoiding shallow regions with high rapids. Spotlight survey
was found to be more effective out of the two survey strategies adopted in this
study, yet the detection probability of hatchlings/ yearlings and animals
resting in vegetation along the riverbank reduced significantly when compared
with the daylight surveys (Woodward & Marion 1978; Bayliss
1987). However, the study shows that the spotlight survey can be an effective
tool for monitoring crocodilian populations over the long term (Messel et al.
1981; Hutton & Woolhouse 1989; Webb et al. 2000;
Fujisaki et al. 2011; Fukuda et al. 2012). It is expected that more systematic
surveys will detect more populations across the Cauvery river ecosystem. An
earlier study by Whitaker & Andrews (2003) also showed a stable population
of Muggers in upper region (around 150 km upstream from the present study site)
of river Cauvery in Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary,
Karnataka. A systematic multiscale study of Muggers, associated species, and
their habitat in the entire stretch of river will yield valuable information
regarding the population dynamics and ecology of the species in the Cauvery
river ecosystem. There is also a need to have local awareness campaigns focusing
on the vulnerability and ecological values of crocodiles (Brito et al. 2011).
Table 1. Type of association
observed for Mugger Crocodiles with respect to the habitat.
River segment |
Segment length (km) |
Topography |
Habitat type |
Type of association* |
Dabaguli–Dolamathi |
3.6 |
Semi-boulders, mud and sparse riparian cover |
Runs, pools and cascades |
+ |
Dolamathi–Uganiyam |
2.7 |
Boulders, semi boulders, sand, leaf litter, and riparian cover |
Runs, pools and riffles |
+ |
Uganiyam–Thumbaguli |
3.7 |
Semi-boulders, Sand, and sparse riparian cover |
Runs, pools and riffles |
_ |
Thumbaguli–Upstream Raasimanal (Unsurveyed segment) |
4.2 |
Boulders, bed rock, leaf litter, and dense riparian cover |
Shallow river depth with cascades and rapids |
NA |
Upstream–Raasimanal |
1.7 |
Semi-boulders, bed rock, mud, and riparian cover |
Runs, pools and riffles |
+ |
Raasimanal–Biligundlu |
5.7 |
Semi-boulders, sand, mud, leaf litter, and dense riparian cover |
Shallow river depth with runs and riffles |
_ |
Biligundlu–Moslaemaduvu |
2.4 |
Boulders, semi-boulders, mud, and less riparian cover |
Runs, pools and cascades |
+ |
Total |
24 |
|
|
|
‘+’ shows positive and ‘–’ shows
negative association
For figures &
images - - click here
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