Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 September 2021 | 13(11): 19492–19499
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6873.13.11.19492-19499
#6873 | Received 07 November 2020 | Final
received 06 September 2021 | Finally accepted 10 September 2021
Ethnozoological use of primates
in northeastern India
Deborah Daolagupu
1, Nazimur Rahman Talukdar 2 &
Parthankar Choudhury 3
1,2,3 Wildlife
Conservation Research Laboratory, Department of Ecology and Environmental
Sciences, Assam University, Silchar,
Assam
788011, India.
2,3 Centre for Biodiversity and
Climate Change Research, Udhayan, Hailakandi,
Assam 788155, India.
1 ddaolagupu15@yahoo.com, 2 talukdar.nr89@gmail.com,
3 parthankar@rediffmail.com (corresponding author)
Editor: Mewa Singh, University of Mysore,
Mysuru, India. Date of publication: 26
September 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Daolagupu,
D., N.R. Talukdar & P. Choudhury (2021). Ethnozoological use of primates in northeastern
India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(11): 19492–19499. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6873.13.11.19492-19499
Copyright: © Daolagupu
et al 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Our research is not
funded by any agency or organization.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Ms. Deborah Daolagupu is a PhD student at the Assam University, Silchar.
She has been pursuing research in the area of ethnozoology. Mr. Nazimur Rahman Talukdar is a PhD student at the
Assam University, Silchar. His research focuses on
diverse aspects of mammalian biology and also climate change. Dr. Parthankar Choudhury is the professor and former
Head of the Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar. His research focuses on different aspects of
mammalian and avian biology. He has more than 95 scientific publications.
Author contributions: All authors equally contribute to
the current paper, including data collection, analyzing, and manuscript
writing.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank
the members of Wildlife Conservation Research Laboratory, Department of Ecology
and Environmental Sciences, Assam University, Silchar.
The authors also thank to all the three anonymous reviewers and the subject
editor for their valuable suggestions to improve the checklist. The authors would also like to express their
gratitude to Mr. Dhrubajit Langthasa,
University of North Texas for his role in the translationof
the abstract into Dimasa language.
Abstract: Ethnozoological practices to cure
various diseases have a long history. Communities that reside near the forest
collect wild animals and their derivatives to prepare medicines and get relief
from diseases. Northeastern India is home to many
tribes with vast traditional ethnobiological knowledge, and there are many
reports of zootherapeutic uses in the region. In an attempt to understand
primate-based ethnozoologic use in the area a literature
survey was carried out using different sources. The findings revealed that Hoolock
hoolock was the most used species among the
primates (48 %), followed by Macaca assamensis (20 %) and Macaca
mulatta (10 %). Among the materials used, the
flesh of primates was the most dominant (43 %), followed by the blood (20 %)
and brain (14 %). This paper highlights the negative effects of ethno-medicinal
uses of primates to draw the attention of conservationists and encourage
conservation education to address the damage to primates in the name of health
care. Government agencies are also requested to strengthen health care systems
to discourage the killing of valuable primate species.
Keywords: Biate tribe, Hoolock Gibbon, Mizoram,
traditional medicine.
Dimasa: Manang
gda nising ning Dao-Mi jadzi nising gibin gibin
glim-gasa khe ham ri yaba yawaithai
phai pha bu lang ba.
Hagra ni rogong ha dongyaba jadzi buthu hagra
ni dao mi nising muli sandi
slamhi glim gasa khe hamridu. North-East India ha gibin gibin jadzi
buthuni muli sandi slamma ni
ringma bangbi odehe mitsiba lai
tsikhade, Dao-Mi ni bahain bugur khe
bo muli sandi
ne yawai ba ibu hathan ha bangbi.
Magusa khe lahi muli-sandi yawaiyaba khe mitsimane
mashi survey khlaiba.
Survey ni yahon ha mitsikha je, magusa
jadzi ni bising ha 'hulao' hoolock khe yawaidaothao (48%), buni yahon ha Macaca
assamensis (20%) odehe Macaca mulatta
(10%). Buha, magusha ni bahain khe
yawaidaothao (43%), buni yahon ha bitsi (20%) odehe bikhlim (14%). Ibu lai ha magusa
ni basao khe muli sandi
ne yawaiba hamya ba khe phunu
du odehe dao-mi khasaoyarao ode raokhiyarao khe ibu sibringmane thiladu. Government khe bo health care hamdaorimane bilahadu nabani tsikhade healthcare hamkha she nolaisarao bo dao-mi
ni beher jang muli sandi
slamba sai dao ma.
INTRODUCTION
Faunal resources play vital roles
in human life and societies (Alves 2012), where the importance of animals is
manifested in religion, culture, art, music, dance, literature, food, economy,
and magico-religious practices (Alves 2012). Use of animals and animal products
to cure ailments is popularly known as ‘zootherapy’ and has been passed down
generations through cultural transmission in several ethnic communities around
the globe (Berkes 2009; Solanki & Chutia 2009; Nekaris et al. 2010;
Jugli et al. 2019).
Non-human primates are an
integral element in ethnozoology (Alves et al. 2010; Lee 2010; Svensson et al. 2015), which has can a range of effects on
animals and their habitats (Hockings 2016). In Asia, Africa, and America primates
are protected and revered to some extent due to their significant role in a
number of agricultural, religious and cultural practices (Hockings 2007). On
the other hand, primates are also considered a menace in agricultural and urban
areas for stealing crops and food from fields and kitchens, inflicting economic
damage (Mittermeier et al. 2005, 2007). This forms the basis of man-animal
conflict resulting in retaliation killing, illegal trade, hunting for meat,
fur, ornamental and medicinal purposes, and capture to be kept as pets
(Mittermeier et al. 2005, 2007; Srivastava 2006; Hockings 2007; Alves et al.
2010; Devi & Radhakrishna 2013). Hunting and trade of primates for their
medicinal value is an important factor for the decline of their populations (Nekaris et al. 2010). Alves et al. (2010) recorded a total
of 101 species of primates that were used in ethnozoological practices and in
magico-religious rituals all over the globe. Out of the 101 recorded primate
species, 12 were classified as ‘Critically Endangered’ (CR), 23 as ‘Endangered’
(EN), 22 as ‘Vulnerable’ (VU), seven as ‘Near Threatened’ (NT), 36 as ‘Least
Concern’ (LC), and one as ‘Data Deficient’ (DD) (IUCN Red List 2020). The
species recorded were also included in Appendices I or II of CITES.
Northeastern India comprises eight states,
viz, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim,
and Tripura. The entire area falls under the Indo-Burma hotspot that harbors diverse species of plants and animals, most of
which are endemic to the region. The region is home to Nycticebus
bengalensis (Bengal Slow Loris), Macaca mulatta (Rhesus
Macaque), Macaca arctoides
(Stump-tailed Macaque), Macaca assamensis (Assamese Macaque), Macaca
leonina (Pig-tailed Macaque), Macaca
munzala (Arunachal Macaque), Macaca
leucogenys (White-cheeked Macaque), Macaca thibetana
(Milne-Edwards’ Macaque, Tibetan Macaque), Semnopithecus
schistaceus (Central Himalayan Langur, Nepal Grey
Langur), Trachypithecus pileatus
(Capped Langur), Trachypithecus phayrei (Phyare’s Leaf
Monkey), Trachypithecus geei
(Golden Langur), Hoolock hoolock (Western
Hoolock Gibbon) (Choudhury 2013; Talukdar et al. 2021). Their distribution
varies, and some areas have higher diversity than others (Chetry
et al. 2003; Choudhury 2013). The damaging scenario of ethno-primatology, i.e.,
the interactions between human and non-human primates, leading to decline of
the latter is more or less same in northeastern India
as elsewhere (Nekaris et al. 2010; Riley 2010; Riley
& Feuntes 2011; Lee 2010; Alves 2012; Alexander
et al. 2014; Svensson et al. 2015; Stafford et al.
2016). Most of the primates of northeastern India are
categorized as vulnerable or threatened. The continuation of ethnozoological
practices by the tribes is depriving them of modern medical advances and also
resulting in rapid declines of primate populations in the region.
The Northeast region of India is
the abode of about 145 tribes constituting around 12 % of the Indian ethnic
population (Ali & Das 2003). In northeastern India,
different workers have reported ethnozoological practices with various animals
by different tribes (Solanki 2006; Solanki & Chutia
2009; Alves et al. 2010; Alves & Alves 2011; Ferreira et al. 2012; Betlu 2013; Devi & Radhakrishna 2013). Most recently, Jugli et al. (2019) studied the ethnozoological practice
among the Tangsa and Wancho
of eastern Arunachal Pradesh. However, none of the above studies have
specifically focused on the detrimental scenario emanating out of the
ethnozoological uses of primates. Therefore, the present study was attempted to
identify the uses of primate species in traditional medicines in northeastern India and suggest remedial measures.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
To analyze
the diversity of primates in the utilization of traditional medicines in northeastern India, available literature on folk remedies
based on primate resources was reviewed. As majority of the works on
ethnobiology have the primary focus on ethnobotany, a total of 11 papers were
found related to the ethnozoological uses, especially in northeastern
India. Scientific papers were downloaded from Google Scholar, PubMed, Research
Gate and Academia using relevant keywords such as ethnozoology, ethno-zoology,
traditional folk medicine, zootherapy, and primate. A database was created
containing detailed information on primate species, body part used for
medicine, mode of usage and name of the tribes.
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
The study found that seven out of
eleven primates in northeastern
India are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments by
different indigenous tribes. The utility of primates in the field of health
care by the indigenous tribes of northeastern India
is diverse (Table 1). Primates of the northeastern
India are reported to be used for 38 different ailments. Large percentages
(48%) of these ailments were reported from a single tribe while others had no
information (Figure 1). Diseases such as malaria (10 %), tuberculosis (9 %),
small pox (7 %), and typhoid (7 %) were found to be treated by using primates
by multiple tribes. Among the primate used for ethnozoological practices,
Hoolock gibbon is mostly used (57 %), followed by different Macaca
sp. (40 %) (Figure 2). Capped Langur was mentioned only in one work from
Arunachal Pradesh (Solanki & Chutia 2009).
Body parts of primates are used
for treating various health conditions ranging from common ailments like
headache and general body weakness to serious ones such as diabetes, malaria,
typhoid, tuberculosis, and hernia (Table 1). Among the body parts of primates
used for ethnozoological purposes, flesh was significantly preferred for the
ethnozoological purposes (χ2= 123, df= 9, p
<0.001). It was found that flesh of primates was mostly used (43 %),
followed by blood (20 %), brain (14 %), and bone (8 %) (Figure 3). Body parts
used for the treatment of some diseases are common irrespective of the tribes.
For example, blood of Hoolock gibbon is used for the treatment of colic, and
flesh of primates is used for the treatment of small pox and typhoid. Such
common patterns of uses of body parts by ethnic people are important to
understand the hunting pressure on the species. Flesh of Hoolock Gibbon is used
by the Biate tribe for remedy of pertussis (Ronghang et al. 2011). Flesh of the same primate is used
for cure against fever, typhoid, malaria, pox, asthma, tuberculosis, and liver
cirrhosis in Arunachal Pradesh (Solanki & Chutia
2004, 2009; Jugli et al. 2019). Pregnant women of Lushai tribes of Mizoram take gibbon flesh to gain physical
strength (Lalramnghinglova 1999; Chinlampianga
et al. 2013). Flesh of Assamese macaque is used against pathogenic diseases
like malaria, typhoid, tuberculosis, and smallpox in Arunachal Pradesh, while
in Mizoram, tribal people believe that consumption of flesh of the same species
helps in painless parturition. Flesh of Stump-tailed Macaque is used against
pathogenic diseases such as malaria, typhoid, and smallpox in Arunachal
Pradesh, while Naga tribe of Nagaland use the flesh of the same species for
cure of tuberculosis, stomach disorder and general weakness (Jamir & Lal
2005). Tribal people in Khowai district of Tripura
use the flesh of Stump-tailed Macaque as pain killer (Das 2015). Flesh of
Capped Langur is used against malaria, typhoid, dysentery, and smallpox by the
tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.
Brain of Hoolock Gibbon, Rhesus
and Assamese macaques was reported to be used against different diseases (Lalramnghinglova 1999; Betlu
2013; Chinlampianga et al. 2013; Devi &
Radhakrishna 2013). Fresh brain tissues of Hoolock Gibbon was found to be used
by Biate tribes of Dima Hasao
district, Assam as they believe that it acts as an invigorating stimulant for
pregnant women (Betlu 2013). In Mizoram, brain tissue
in paste form is applied for toothache, taken orally to get rid of headache,
and sometimes the brain tissues are dried up, and the dry powder is used
against tooth decay and as a cure for bee sting (Lalramnghinglova
1999; Chinlampianga et al. 2013). Brain of Assamese
macaque is used to gain physical strength during pregnancy by the Biate tribes of Dima Hasao
district of Assam (Betlu 2013) while some local
tribes of Arunachal Pradesh believe that the consumption of a fresh brain of
the macaque controls blood pressure and cures one of nausea (Chinlampianga et al. 2013). Lushai
tribes of Mizoram consume it for gaining physical strength (Lalramnghinglova
1999). The Meitei women of Manipur take the brain of Rhesus Macaque during
postnatal period (Devi & Radhakrishna 2013). Blood of many primate species
is used by various tribes of northeastern India for a
variety of purposes. In Arunachal Pradesh, the Tangsa
tribe use the fresh blood of Hoolock Gibbon to cure diseases such as asthma,
malaria, tuberculosis, liver cirrhosis, and weakness caused by hypovolemia
(decreased blood volume). Among the tribes of Mizoram, blood of Hoolock Gibbon
was reported to be used for hepatitis, hemicrania, tuberculosis, anemia, bone fracture, and colic problem in children.
Bones of primates are used for
different ailments (Table 1). Dried bone of Assamese Macaque is used by the Biate tribe to cure mumps. The bone of Hoolock gibbon is
used by the Biate tribe of Dima Hasao
district (Assam) against hernia, rheumatism, dizziness, and against pertussis
by the Karbi tribe of Karbi
Anglong district, Assam (Ronghang
et al. 2011). The tribal people of Mizoram use bone of gibbon as they believe
it acts as a vaccine and prevents attack of diseases. Gall bladder of non-human
primates is used by the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh for getting relief from high
fever caused by malaria and typhoid (Solanki & Chutia
2009).
In several cases, ethnic
communities prepare the animal-based medicines either singly or in combination,
and some are consumed raw or preserved. In some cases, the animal body parts
are preserved by drying under the sun or are smoked or fire-dried (Betlu 2013; Jugli et al. 2019).
Although Rhesus Macaque is commonly used as ethnozoological medicine among all
the tribes of the region, there has been no published literature on this and
the other primates except Hoolock gibbon, which is mostly reported for its uses
against multiple diseases (Figure 3).
Apart from their uses as
ethnomedicines, body parts of primates are also used for a variety of other
purposes by the ethnic communities. They are hunted for food, sport or
ceremonial and ritualistic purposes (Devi & Radhakrishna 2013). For
instance, the fur of primates is used in making the local hat ‘Yangcha’ of the Monpa people of
Arunachal Pradesh (Solanki & Chutia 2004). Betlu (2013) reported that Hoolock Gibbons are kept as pets
by Biate tribe of Dima Hasao
district of Assam. It was also reported that the smoked meat of Capped Langur
and Hoolock Gibbon was in high demand and would cost approximately INR 350–400
per kilogram.
The study found multiple
ethnozoological uses of same organs of primates by the tribes while some organs
are commonly used by the different tribes for the same disease. This needs to
be prevented and deserves sincere attention of conservationists. Among a few
tribes there exist myths or folktales about the demerits of consumption of
animal species. Though most of the communities think that body parts of slow
loris are useful, the tribal communities of Manipur believe that consuming
their flesh causes severe illness. There also exist other beliefs among the
tribal communities that are helpful in upholding the ethos of conservation.
According to some communities of Manipur, Hoolock Gibbons reproduce at full
moon and also die at full moon, thus a circle is maintained. For the sake of
conservation, such belief systems need to be promoted on a large scale as they
can contribute to reducing the hunting pressure for ethno
medicines. As the primates in the area are also facing innumerable threats like
scarcity of food, habitat fragmentation and shrinkage, the tribal people should
be prevented from hunting them. The tribes should be made aware of the penal
provisions as contained in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, CITES etc. To
spread the message of conservation, sufficient numbers of awareness campaign
needs to be given among the tribes to reduce their dependence on primates.
CONCLUSION
This study
documents the negative uses of primate resources in traditional healthcare
systems by the indigenous people of northeastern
India. Many endangered and vulnerable primates that are used for zoo-therapeutical purposes are collected from the wild and
killed to obtain the desired organs or body parts. This sets pressure on the
survival of the species in particular and on the biodiversity of the region in
general. All the primates of northeastern India are
facing multiple threats, and hence the tribes should not be allowed to hunt
them. Unlike plants, there is no scientific basis/evidence for the medicinal
values of primates, and since cheaper and easier medicines are available almost
everywhere, communities should be barred from killing such precious animals.
Governments should also take up initiatives to open adequate health care centers and hospitals in the interior villages, so that the
tribal people are exposed to scientific health care systems. In order to
strengthen their conservation, community awareness needs to be undertaken to
reduce dependency on primates for traditional healthcare.
Table 1. List of primates and
their body parts traditionally used as medicines for the treatment of various
ailments by different ethnic tribes of northeast India.
|
State |
Tribe |
Animal |
Body part used |
Dried / fresh |
Ailments |
Mode of preparation |
Reference |
Conservation status |
||
|
IUCN Red List status |
WPA |
CITES |
||||||||
|
Assam |
Biate |
Hoolock hoolock |
Brain |
Fresh |
Painless parturition |
Brain tissues are cooked and
consumed with rice |
Betlu 2013 |
EN |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|
Bone |
Dried |
Rheumatism |
Bone pieces are tied to
affected body part of man |
|||||||
|
Skull bone |
Dried |
Diziness |
Gibbon skull bone pieces
are tied to the head of human subject. |
|||||||
|
Hand |
Dried |
Hernia |
Sun dried gibbon hands are
rubbed onto the affected areas of man. |
|||||||
|
Macaca assamensis |
Brain |
Fresh |
General weakness in pregnant
women |
Brain tissues are cooked and
taken with rice to get body strength during pregnancy. |
NT |
Sch II (Part 1) |
- |
|||
|
Gall bladder |
Dried |
Diabetes |
Dried up pieces are taken in
with rice or sometimes with water. |
|||||||
|
Limb |
Dried |
Mumps |
Dried up pieces are used for
massage on the affected area. |
|||||||
|
Assam |
Karbi |
Hoolock hoolock |
Flesh / Bones |
Dried |
Pertussis |
The powdered bone of Hoolock
gibbon is taken in combination with of the flesh of Acridotheres
tristis (Common myna),
salt and water and made into a tablet and thus consumed. |
Ronghang et al. 2011 |
EN |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|
Arunachal Pradesh |
Monpa |
Hoolock hoolock |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Serious fever, Typhoid,
Malaria, Pox |
Flesh, liver and blood are
cooked and consumed. |
Solanki & Chutia 2004, 2009 |
EN |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|
Macaca assamensis |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Malaria, typhoid, Tuberculosis,
small pox |
Cooked and ingested. |
NT |
Sch II (Part1) |
− |
|||
|
Macaca mulatta |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Malaria, typhoid, small pox |
Cooked and ingested. |
NT |
Sch II (Part1) |
− |
|||
|
Trachypithecus pileatus |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Malaria, typhoid, dysentery,
small pox |
Cooked and ingested. |
VU |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|||
|
Tangsa |
Hoolock hoolock |
Flesh, Liver, Blood |
Fresh |
Asthma, Malaria, Tuberculosis,
Liver cirrhosis |
Flesh, liver and blood are
cooked and consumed. |
Jugli et al. 2019 |
EN |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|
|
Blood |
Fresh |
Hypovolemia |
Fresh raw blood is drunk. |
|||||||
|
Nycticebus bengalensis |
Body fat |
Fresh |
Body pain and burns |
Fresh body fats are
preserved in the bamboo jar made up of bamboo (or in glass bottle) and
massage given on the affected area as and when required. |
VU |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|||
|
Macaca assamensis |
Brain |
Fresh |
Blood pressure, nausea |
Brain is cooked and ingested
directly. |
NT |
Sch II (Part 1) |
- |
|||
|
Mizoram |
Lushai |
Hoolock hoolock |
Flesh |
Fresh or dried |
Painless parturition |
Cooked and consumed. |
Lalramng-hinglova 1999; Chinlam-pianga et al. 2013 |
EN |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|
Blood |
Fresh |
Colic, Hepatitis, Hemicrania |
10ml fresh blood is taken at a time |
|||||||
|
Tuberculosis, Colic, Anaemia |
Blood and country liquor
(homemade) are mixed and taken. |
|||||||||
|
Fracture of bone |
Blood of Hoolock gibbon is
taken, mixed it with turpentine oil and applied on the affected area. |
|||||||||
|
Brain |
Fresh |
Toothache, Headache |
Hairs on skull are removed by
fire; it is then cooked. After that applied on the affected teeth and also
taken or eaten for cure against headache. |
|||||||
|
Brain |
Dried |
Tooth decay, Bee sting |
Cooked brain preserved in a
container over fire is grounded to powder and applied on tooth decay and bee
sting |
|||||||
|
Bone marrow |
Fresh |
Sciatica, Paralysis |
Bone marrow is taken out from
Tibia fibula and is cooked and rubbed on the affected areas. |
|||||||
|
Bone |
Dried |
Prevent attack of diseases |
A small part of the bone is
tied with thread that hangs on the wrist or waist. |
|||||||
|
Nycticebus bengalensis |
Fur |
Dried |
Wounds and cuts Haemostatics |
Fur is wrapped around
the affected area |
VU |
Sch I (Part1) |
I |
|||
|
Macaca assamensis |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Easy labour during pregnancy |
Flesh is cooked and consumed |
NT |
Sch II (Part1) |
− |
|||
|
Brain |
Fresh |
General weakness |
Brain is cooked
and served to the children for consumption. |
|||||||
|
Bile |
Fresh |
Malaria |
Bile is cooked and taken. |
|||||||
|
Manipur |
Meitei community |
Macaca mulatta |
Brain |
Fresh |
Postnatal women |
Brain is cooked and taken as
food. |
Devi & Radha-krishna 2013 |
NT |
Sch II (Part 1) |
- |
|
Tripura |
Tribes in Khowai
district of Tripura. |
Macaca mulatta |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Joint pain |
Flesh is cooked and taken
as food. |
Das 2015 |
NT |
Sch II (Part 1) |
|
|
Nagaland |
Naga |
Macaca sp. |
Flesh |
Fresh |
Tuberculosis, stomach disorder,
general weakness |
Flesh is cooked and taken
as food. |
Jamir & Lal 2005 |
|
|
|
IUCN—International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resource | WPA—Wildlife Protection Act of
India, 1972 | CITES—Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Flora and Fauna | EN—Endangered | VU—Vulnerable | NT—Not Threatened.
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