Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2021 | 13(9): 19338–19351
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6811.13.9.19338-19351
#6811 | Received 15 October 2020 | Final
received 23 July 2021 | Finally accepted 29 July 2021
Wild ungulates in Jordan: past,
present, and forthcoming opportunities
Ehab Eid 1 & David Mallon 2
1 Eco-Values for Sustainable
Development, Lutfi Queder
Street, Yadodah 11610, Amman, Jordan.
2
Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan
University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
1 eha_jo@yahoo.com (corresponding
author), 2 dmallon7@gmail.com
Abstract: Twelve species of ungulates are
reported from the wild in Jordan. Three of these, Addax nasomaculatus
(Addax), Bos primigenius (Aurochs), and Cervus elaphus (Red
Deer) are known only from archaeological excavations. Dama
mesopotamica (Mesopotamian Fallow Deer), Oryx leucoryx (Arabian Oryx) and Equus hemionus hemippus (Syrian
Wild Ass) have been regionally extirpated in the wild. A semi-captive
population of Persian Onager (E. h. hemionus) is held in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve. The Arabian Oryx is also managed in semi-captive conditions
in two reserves. Except the commonly occurring Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), other surviving ungulate species continue to
be under serious threat. Gazella gazella (Palestinian Mountain Gazelle), Capreolus capreolus
(European Roe Deer), Gazella marica (Arabian Sand Gazelle), and Gazella
dorcas (Dorcas Gazelle) are Critically
Endangered, and Capra nubiana (Nubian Ibex) is
Endangered in the region. This paper provides a review of the historical and
current status of wild ungulates in Jordan, listing the threats and
conservation measures and provides recommendations for management and
conservation in the future.
Keywords: Arabian Oryx, Arabian Sand
Gazelle, conservation actions, Dorcas Gazelle, Fallow Deer, historical
background, Mountain Gazelle, Nubian Ibex, Persian Onager,
population, status, Roe Deer, Wild Ass, Wild Boar.
Editor: L.A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India. Date of publication: 26 August
2021 (online & print)
Citation: Eid, E. & D. Mallon (2021). Wild ungulates in
Jordan: past, present, and forthcoming opportunities). Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(9): 19338–19351. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6811.13.9.19338-19351
Copyright: © Eid & Mallon 2021. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License. JoTT
allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any
medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of
publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author
details: Ehab Eid a Steering
Committee Member of IUCN SSC, Vice Chair of SSC and EAGL of West
Asia. His research focused on species diversity, animal trade,
hunting, biodiversity conservation, CITES, and protected areas management. David
Mallon is a Visiting Professor in the Department of Natural Sciences at
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK, a Special Advisor to the IUCN Species
Survival Commission, a member of the IUCN Red List Committee and Co-Chair of
the Antelope Specialist Group.
Author contributions: EE developed the concept and produced the distribution
maps; both authors participated in writing the manuscript.
Introduction
Jordan is situated in the
junction point of three major biogeographical realms, the Palearctic,
Afrotropical, and Oriental (Amr et al. 2004), which support the existence of
four distinct biogeographical zones in the country; Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian,
and Afrotropical (Al Eisawi 1996). This results in
the presence of a diverse range of habitats, which provide suitable niches for
various species of fauna and flora (Image 1). The ungulate diversity includes
species of Palearctic origin such as the Roe Deer (Capreolus
capreolus) in the Mediterranean biome of northern
Jordan and Nubian Ibex (Capra nubiana) in the
western mountains, and widespread Middle Eastern desert species such as the
Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and
gazelles (Gazella spp.) (Amr et al. 2004).
The presence of ungulates in
Jordan is well documented in ancient rock drawings, and mosaics on the walls of
desert palaces and churches in Madaba (Hatough-Bouran
& Disi 1991). In addition, early travelers to the Levant provided incidental records of many
species (e.g., Tristram 1884).
Twelve species of ungulates
(defined as the mammalian orders Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla) have been reported to occur in Jordan (Quemsiyeh et al. 1996; Amr 2012) (Table 1). Three species
are known only from archaeological excavations: Aurochs (Bos primigenius), Addax (Addax nasomaculatus),
and Red Deer (Cervus elaphus),
though some doubt exists over two of these. Of the remaining nine species,
three have been extirpated from Jordan. The Roe Deer (Capreolus
capreolus) has been reintroduced. An Arabian Oryx
(Oryx leucoryx) reintroduction programme has
begun, but the released populations in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve and Wadi Rum Protected Area are held in semi-captive
conditions, and they are not yet considered fully wild. The Syrian Wild Ass (Equus
hemionus hemippus)
formerly occurred across the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula, including
Jordan, but became extinct in 1927. A small population of Persian Onager (E. h. hemionus) is
kept in semi-captive conditions in Shumari Wildlife
reserve. There have been no confirmed sightings of Mountain Gazelle (Gazella gazella) or
the reintroduced population of Roe Deer (Capreolus
capreolus) since 2015 (Eid et al. 2020). Of the
remaining four species, Arabian Sand Gazelle (Gazella
marica) Dorcas Gazelle (G. dorcas) and Nubian Ibex Capra nubiana
are seriously threatened, while the Wild Boar (Sus scrofa)
is still common and threats to its population are insignificant (Amr 2012). The
aim of this paper is to summarize the history and status of wild ungulates in
Jordan.
Ungulates have always been hunted
for meat, hides, and trophies. In ancient times, elaborate stone corrals known
as ‘desert kites’ were constructed to trap gazelles and other species. These
are funnel-shaped, stone structures, with walls 25 to 70 m in length, into
which animals were driven and killed (Bar-Oz et al. 2011). Desert kites allowed
the capture of whole herds and slaughter of hundreds of gazelles. Many desert
kites are located in the eastern desert of Jordan, some of them possibly dating
from the Neolithic period (Betts & Burke 2015).
Declines in the numbers and
diversity of ungulates began in the early 19th century (Quemsiyeh et al. 1996; Amr 2012). Meinertzhagen
(1954) reported that the enormous decline in wildlife populations in the
Arabian Peninsula and Jordan began during the First World War (1914–1918) when
modern rifles and motor vehicles first arrived in the country, and these
declines have continued since then (Kiwan et al.
2001; Amr 2012; Eid et al. 2020).
Arabian Oryx, Arabian Sand
Gazelle, Dorcas Gazelle, and Nubian Ibex are included on Appendix I of
the classification system for wild animals which prohibits hunting by virtue of
paragraph (e) of Article (57) according to regulation No. 43 for the year 2008
of the Agriculture Law No. (13) for the year 2015. The addition of Mountain
Gazelle and Roe Deer to Appendix I is currently under consideration by the
government.
Annotated checklist of the
ungulates of Jordan
(A.) Extinct in the region
(Archaeological records)
(A1.) Addax nasomaculatus
(de Blainville, 1816) Addax
[Critically Endangered (IUCN),
Extinct in the region, Archaeological records]
The presence of the Addax in
Jordan during the Pleistocene has been in report (Tristram 1884; Bates 1937).
However, Bodenheimer (1958) suggested that published
accounts may be misidentifications or relied on information from Bedouins who
used the Arabic common name (bakr al wahsh) for more than one species including the Aurochs.
Harrison (1972) reported that the Addax may have formerly existed in the region
but that there was no confirmed evidence of its presence in the region in
recent times.
(A2.) Bos primigenius
(Bojanus, 1827) Aurochs
[Extinct (IUCN), Extinct in the
region, Archaeological records]
Bone remains belonging to this
species have been excavated from archaeological sites in Jordan dating from
different Paleontological eras, such as Ain Ghazal, Azraq,
Wadi Hassa, Wadi Jilat, and
Tel Hesbon (Boessneck &
Van den Driesch 1978; Gerrard et al. 1988). Harrison (1972) reported that the
Aurochs may have survived in the region until historical times. The species is
Extinct.
(A3.) Cervus
elaphus (Linnaeus, 1758) Red Deer
[Least Concern (IUCN), Extinct in
the region]
Qumsiyeh (1996) referred to
archaeological remains of this species but added that there was no information
on when it got extirpated. Harrison & Bates (1991) did not include Red Deer
in their account of the mammals of the Arabian Peninsula and its presence has
never been confirmed in the region in historical times.
(B.) Extinct in the region
(presence in captivity or as different subspecies)
(B1.) Dama
mesopotamica (Brooke, 1875) Mesopotamian or
Persian Fallow Deer
[Critically Endangered (IUCN),
Extinct in the region]
Distribution and status
Mesopotamian Fallow Deer formerly
occurred in forested hills of northern Jordan and the north of the Arabian
Peninsula (Harrison & Bates 1991) but it was already rare by late 19th
century (Tristram 1884). Qumsiyeh (1996) stated that
the species disappeared from the eastern Mediterranean region 100 years
earlier, although Bodenheimer (1958) reported seeing
antlers in a shop in 1923 that reportedly came from Jerash. RSCN obtained four
fallow deer in 1983, but it turned out that these were European Fallow Deer (Dama dama), a
non-native species, so they were given to a private farmer (Harding 2007).
Several private owners later obtained European Fallow Deer. More than 250
European Fallow Deer, which were originally introduced from Germany in 2003
were observed in enclosures at Zubia area near Irbid
in northern Jordan (E. Eid, pers. obs., 2009). The presence of this non-native
species would complicate any future restoration of Dama
mesopotamica to Jordan.
(B2.) Oryx leucoryx
(Pallas, 1777) Arabian Oryx
[Vulnerable (IUCN), Extinct in
the region, 230 in total in enclosures within two protected areas]
Distribution and status
Tristram (1884) stated that this
species was still common in northern Arabia and in Balka
and Houran in Jordan in the 19th century.
Schmitz collected it in Jordan in 1910 (Anon 1946) and the specimen is in a
museum in Amman. According to Mountfort (1965), a
hunter shot three animals at Qatraneh near Karak, southern Jordan in the 1920s. In the 1930s a British
army unit kept one in captivity in southern Jordan (Dollman
& Burlace 1935). Populations were reported to
persist in Saudi Arabia, close to the Jordanian borders, near Jabal et Tubayq (Carruthers 1935)
and in Al Busayta and Wadi Sirhan
(Raswan 1935).
The exact date of the extinction
of the Arabian Oryx in Jordan is unknown but several dates have been proposed.
Clarke (1977) stated that the oryx became extinct in Jordan during the 1930s,
while Talbot (1960) and Fitter (1967) stated that the last Arabian Oryx was
shot in the 1940s. Hatough & Al Eisawi (1987) considered that this species was on the verge
of extinction in the 1950s. Mountfort (1965) reported
that the last wild oryx in Jordan was shot in the early 1960s near Qatraneh, c. 75 km south of Amman.
Arabian Oryx have been
reintroduced to two sites in Jordan, Shumari Wildlife
Reserve and Wadi Rum Protected Area (Figure 1). The RSCN initiated the first
reintroduction into Shumari Wildlife Reserve in 1978
(Clarke 1979; Nelson 1985; Abu-Jafar &
Hays-Shahin 1988; Hatough & Al-Eisawi 1988). Eight oryx from the San Diego Wild Animal
Park in the United States (four males and four females) and three animals from
the Royal herd in Qatar (one male and two females) were donated in 1978 to the
RSCN (Hatough & Al-Eisawi
1988). In 1984, Zurich Zoo in Switzerland provided three additional males. The
founders were from two separate bloodlines: those from San Diego and Zurich
were of Yemeni-Saudi stock, whereas those from Qatar were from a separate line
(Harding et al. 2007). This program was considered transitional to a truly
wild, free-ranging population, which the RSCN planned to establish eventually (Mountfort 1965; Clarke 1977, 1979).
The Shumari
Wildlife Reserve herd grew to 30 in 1983 and about 176 in 1995 (Qumsiyeh et al. 1996). By 2000 the population reached 313
but the lack of available habitat due to overgrazing prevented release of the
animals outside the reserve, so as to reduce overcrowding, the RSCN donated
some oryx to breeding collections in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and the United
Arab Emirates, while others were transferred to Wadi Rum Protected Area in the
south of Jordan in 2002 and 2006 (Harding et al. 2007). Currently there are c.
70 individuals in Shumari wildlife reserve (A. Al
Halal, pers. comm. 2020. Reserve manager).
In February 2020, the Environment
Agency - Abu Dhabi (EAD) and RSCN signed a Memorandum of Understanding on a
breeding and reintroduction project for the Arabian Oryx in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve. The project aims to release 60 oryx in the reserve over
2021–2022. The Shumari Wildlife Reserve will also be
expanded to ensure enough suitable grazing, by rehabilitating land outside the
current boundaries (https://www.rscn.org.jo/abu-dhabis-environment-agency-release-60-arabian-oryx-jordans-shumari-wildlife-reserve).
Ten oryx were transferred from Shumari Wildlife Reserve to Wadi Rum Protected Area in 2002
and 50 more in 2006 (Harding et al. 2007).
A new reintroduction project in Wadi Rum Protected Area was initiated in
2007, funded by H.H Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. Sixty oryx (20 males,
40 females) were transferred from the United Arab Emirates to an enclosure
inside the reserve in two batches: 20 in 2009, and 40 in 2012 (N. Zawaydeh. Former reserve manager. pers. Comm. 2019). The
current population in Wadi Rum Protected Area numbers around 100 individuals
(A. Alhasassein. Oryx reintroduction project manager.
pers. comm. 2020.). The oryx are currently held in semi-captive conditions with
a plan to release later in the wider area.
Threats
The main threat that led to the
extinction of the species from Jordan was hunting, but pesticides used to
control locusts across the Badia in the 1950s also
killed some oryx (Hatough & Al Eisawi 1988; Qumsiyeh et al.
1996). Harding et al. (2007) reported that the main causes of mortality of
young oryx in Shumari Wildlife Reserve were predation
and flash floods. Illegal live capture of oryx for sale to private collections,
and for food has been reported from Wadi Rum Protected Area (E. Eid unpub. data 2020).
Conservation Actions
This species is protected at Wadi
Rum Protected Area and Shumari Wildlife Reserve.
Since the Arabian Oryx populations in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve and Wadi Rum Protected Area are still held within enclosures,
they are not yet considered fully wild, so this species was assessed as
Regionally Extinct in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020). Decisions are needed to be
taken in releasing the Arabian Oryx into the wild by working on two levels; the
first is regional, by developing memoranda of understanding with neighboring countries, especially the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia to establish a protocol for conserving the released animals which cross
the border. The second is at national level where awareness programs be
implemented linked to strong enforcement and partnerships established with the
hunters’ association and the Royal Department for Environmental
Protection.
(B3.) Equus hemionus hemippus (I.
Geoffroy, 1855) Syrian Wild Ass
[Near Threatened (IUCN), Extinct
in the region (Eid et al. 2020), Syrian Wild Ass (E. h. hemippus)
is Extinct. But 32 numbers of E. h. onager are
in a protected area]
Distribution and Status
The Syrian Wild Ass was formerly
distributed across the whole of the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula
(Harrison & Bates 1991), but this subspecies became extinct in 1927 when
the last individual was reported shot near Sinjar in northern Iraq (Kaczensky et al. 2015). Musil
(1927) reported that in Jordan Wild Ass occurred in the Sirhan
depression 100 years earlier and that the last individual had been shot at Al Ghamr wells, south-east of Azraq.
Harrison (1972) stated that it was formerly numerous in the Azraq
region of Jordan. Qumsiyeh (1996) mentioned a
well-preserved image of a wild ass hunt in Qasr Amrah,
near Azraq. It is not known precisely when the wild
ass disappeared from Jordan (Figure 2).
The Royal Society for the
Conservation of Nature (RSCN), selected the Persian Onager
(E. h. onager) for a reintroduction programme
as it is the closest relative of the extinct subspecies, and thus in accordance
with the principle of ‘the nearest available subspecies’ in the IUCN
reintroduction guidelines (IUCN/SSC 2013). The main reason for establishing Shumari Wildlife Reserve was for captive breeding and
reintroduction of the wild ass and other species (Amr et al. 2004).
Two immature Persian Onagers (male and female) were imported from Montpellier
Zoo, France, in 1983 but these animals died, and an additional four individuals
(two of each sex) were imported from Koeln,
Stuttgart, and Whipsnade zoos in 1988–1989 and an additional male and five
females were imported from Basel Zoo in 1997 (Abu Eid 2001; Khoury et al.
2012). Currently, 32 individuals are present in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve (A. Elhalah, Reserve manager. pers.
comm. 2020.).
Threats
There is no specific information
on the reasons for extinction of the Syrian Wild Ass in Jordan, although
hunting is likely to have been a major factor.
Conservation Actions
The species is currently held in
semi-captive conditions at Shumari Wildlife Reserve,
which is fenced. Release into the wild is not currently considered a priority
because of the lack of suitable habitat and the population is used for
educational purposes and to raise awareness of the former fauna of Jordan. Wild
Ass is considered Regionally Extinct in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020).
(C.) Critically Endangered
All three species of gazelles
occurring in Jordan are critically endangered. These are, Palestinian or Mountain
Gazelle (G. gazella), Arabian Sand Gazelle (Gazella marica),
and Dorcas Gazelle (G. dorcas) (Harrison &
Bates 1991; Quemsiyeh et al. 1996; Amr 2012).
Tristram (1884) stated that gazelles were common and abundant in every part of
Jordan. Besides, the European Roe Deer (Capreolus
capreolus) is also Critically Endangered.
(C1.) Gazella
gazella (Pallas, 1766) Palestinian Mountain
Gazelle
[Endangered (IUCN), Critically
Endangered in the region, Not seen since 2015]
Distribution and status
Archeological evidence suggests Palestinian
Mountain Gazelle Gazella gazella was a common species throughout the Jordan
mountain chain (Tchernov et al. 1986/7; Uerpmann 1987) and Amr & Disi
(1988) reported that a specimen killed in the Salt mountains in summer 1986 is
now in the Jordan University Museum of Natural History (JUMHN). The
distribution extended down the Rift Valley of western Jordan with many records
from the Jordan and Yarmouk valleys in the north (Qumsiyeh
et al. 1996; Kiwan et al. 2001; Amr 2012; Figure 3).
Clarke (1977) reported a population in the Mujib area. Quemsiyeh
et al. (1996) described it as rare and reported relict populations in small
pockets surrounded by G. dorcas in the
southern part of Wadi Araba. Amr et al. (2004) stated that the species was
declining at an alarming rate. Amr et al. (1987) stated that groups of gazelles
could be observed on the Syrian border near the Yarmouk River, and on some
occasions on the Jordanian side of the border. According to local people and
army personnel, a few individuals still survive near the Yarmouk and Jordan
Rivers, on both sides of the international borders. There are no current
estimates of population size and there have been no sightings since 2015 (Eid
et al. 2020).
Threats
Illegal hunting represents the
major threat (Quemsiyeh et al. 1996; Eid et al.
2020). Habitat loss and deterioration through agricultural development, fencing
pasture for cattle, construction of roads and settlement are further threats.
Despite the small numbers, illegal hunting still takes place and a photo of
single specimen killed by hunters was posted on Facebook in 2015 (Eid & Handal 2018).
Conservation Actions
Mountain Gazelle is protected by
law. Eid et al. (2020) listed this species as Critically Endangered (CR) in
Jordan. Yarmouk Forest Reserve contains suitable habitat for this species,
which provides potential for a reintroduction program, if effective protection
can be assured.
(C2.) Capreolus
capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758) European Roe Deer
[Least Concern (IUCN), Critically
Endangered regionally, Not seen since 2015]
Distribution and status
European Roe Deer formerly
inhabited forested regions in the northern Jordan valley and the hills of
northern Palestine (Harrison & Bates 1991). The species probably
disappeared from Jordan at the beginning of the 19th century
(Amr 2012).
The Royal Society initiated a
reintroduction program for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN) in 1996. Four Roe
Deer (two males and two females) from the Turkish-Bulgarian border were donated
to the RSCN in 1988 and seven more individuals were imported in 1996/1997,
believed to be from the same source and including at least five adult females
(Amr et al. 2004). The reintroduction program was initiated in Zubiya Nature Reserve in northern Jordan, but later
transferred to Ajloun Forest Reserve. In 2006,
the 26 animals in the breeding herd (11 males, 15 females) were released into
the reserve where they expanded their range into vineyards outside the reserve
(Qumsiyeh et al. 1996; Eid & Ananbeh
2009; Khoury et al. 2012). In 2009, a survey of the reserve observed only
four individuals (two males and two females) but mating was recorded (Eid &
Ananbeh 2009). Despite annual monitoring, no Roe Deer
have been observed since 2015 (Figure 4).
Threats
Harrison & Bates (1991)
reported that the virtual extinction of the roe deer from northern Arabia was
due to increased hunting pressure and deforestation. Eid & Ananbeh (2009) reported that habitat degradation, hunting,
and urbanization were the major causes of extinction in Jordan. Illegal hunting
remains a likely threat.
Conservation Actions
This species has been
reintroduced into Ajloun Forest Reserve, but it is
unclear whether the population has become established. Reinforcement or a new
reintroduction program will be needed to ensure the survival of Roe Deer in
Jordan. To ensure success, it is critical to strengthen law enforcement in the
reserve and monitor the released animals using tracking technologies. It is
listed as Critically Endangered in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020). The government is
currently planning to add Roe Deer to the list of protected species.
(C3.) Gazella
marica (Thomas, 1897) Arabian Sand Gazelle
[Vulnerable (IUCN), Critically
Endangered regionally, less than 50 individuals]
Distribution and status
The Arabian Sand Gazelle was
formerly known as G. subgutturosa marica but is now considered to be a full species (Wacher et al. 2010). Harrison (1968) reported a specimen
from Al Qatraneh in Karak
which is now stored at the British Museum. One skull was collected from Safawy (H-5 station) in 1950 and Dr.
Muller collected another skull from Qa’a Dhuweila in September 1983 (Amr & Disi
1988). The species was formerly widely distributed in the desert zones of the
north-east of the country (Kiwan et al. 2001; Amr
2012; Figure 5). Kiwan et al. (2001) also pointed out
that while the Arabian sand gazelle is indigenous to Jordan, other gazelles are
occasionally imported illegally from Iraq and, as these females are hornless,
they may represent either G. s. subgutturosa
or intergrades.
Amr (2012) claimed a sharp
decline in the population since the 1980s and listed positive records of Gazella marica from
the Syrian-Jordanian border, specifically at Burqu’
near Al Masmah and Hedlat. Kiwan et al. (2001) estimated there were less than 100
individuals in the wild in Jordan, but the population is now estimated at less
than 50 (Eid et al. 2020).
A reintroduction program was
initiated in 1978, when 10 individuals (nine females and one male) were donated
to RSCN and transferred to Shumari Wildlife Reserve.
The population increased to 34 in 1990, then declined to 22 individuals in
1990–1991 and 14 in 1994 (Harding 2007). Budieri
(1995) stated infectious diseases and poorly designed enclosures contributed to
the lack of success. Seven gazelles died during a flood in 1994 (Nelson 1985).
Thirty Arabian Sand Gazelles are currently present in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve (A. Al-Halah. Reserve manager. pers.
comm. 2020).
Threats
The main threats are illegal
hunting (for meat and to a lesser extent for trophies) and habitat loss (due to
economic development, conversion to agriculture, and increasing numbers of
domestic livestock) while some specimens are live caught for private
collections (Eid et al. 2020). Eid & Handal
(2018) reported images of 23 specimens killed by hunters and posted on Facebook
in 2015.
Conservation Actions
Arabian Sand gazelle is protected
by law, and in-situ at Burqu nature reserve. A small
captive-breeding herd is present in the fenced Shumari
Wildlife Reserve, but breeding has not been very successful to date. A
reintroduction program is needed to reinforce and conserve the remaining wild
population, but strict enforcement of the law on hunting is required for any
releases to succeed. Eid et al. (2020) listed this species as Critically
Endangered in Jordan. Clarke (1976, 1977) proposed wadi Rajil
and Burqu as potential reintroduction sites.
(C4.) Gazella
dorcas (Linnaeus, 1758) Dorcas Gazelle
[Vulnerable (IUCN), Critically
Endangered regionally, less than 50 individuals]
Distribution and status
Bones have been excavated from
Neolithic sites in Jordan (Uerpmann 1987). The
Schmitz collection has a specimen from Amman (Anon 1946). Recent records are
from southern Jordan, from Mujib southwards, mainly in Wadi Araba (Amr & Disi 1988; Amr 2012; Figure 6). The total population in
Jordan was estimated at 180–200 (Kiwan et al. 2001)
but is now considered to number less than 50 (Eid et al. 2020).
Threats
Poaching and land encroachment
are the main threats to the remaining populations (Kiwan
et al. 2001). Eid & Handal (2018) reported images
of two specimens killed by hunters posted on Facebook in 2015.
Conservation Actions
Dorcas Gazelle is listed as
Critically Endangered in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020) and it is protected by law.
Measures are urgently needed to safeguard the remaining small population and to
restore the species through releases and reintroductions into former sites.
Potential habitat for this species exists in the western parts of Dana
Biosphere Reserves and Rahma Special Conservation
Area.
(D.) Endangered
(D1.) Capra nubiana (F. Cuvier, 1825) Nubian Ibex
[Vulnerable (IUCN), Endangered
regionally, less than 500 individuals]
Distribution and status
The Nubian Ibex is known from archeological sites at several localities across Jordan, in
petroglyphs (rock drawings) in the Wadi Rum Protected Area and in mosaics and
on the walls of desert palaces and churches in Madaba (Amr et al. 2004).
Tristram (1884) reported the species as common from Moab (hills on the eastern
side of the Dead Sea), and Jebel Hatrura (near Masada
proposed protected area).
The distribution (Figure 7)
extends along the western mountains of Jordan from Humrat
Ma’ein south to Wadi Rum Protected Area (Amr 2012;
Eid et al. 2020). Amr & Disi (1988) recorded ibex
in Karak, Wadi Araba, and Ghor
Safi. Hatough-Bouran & Disi
(1991) stated that the Nubian ibex survived in a few localities along the
western mountains of Jordan. Qumsiyeh et al. (1996)
and Hays & Bandak (1997) reported ibex presence
from Wadi Ibn Hammad Special Conservation Area and Wadi Rum Protected Area. Amr
(2012) mentioned that it occurred from the mountains of Aqaba, Al Mazar Al Janobi, Ghawr Al-Mazraa’h, Karak, Al Qadeseyah. Current presence is concentrated in and around
Dana and Mujib Biosphere reserves and Wadi Rum Protected Area.
Hatough-Bouran & Disi
(1991) warned that ibex was on edge of extinction, but Amr (2012) reported that
the ibex managed to persist, despite the rapid decline in its population since
the mid-1800s. In 2011, a survey in Dana reserve estimated at least 250
individuals (Eid & Owaji 2011).
A captive-breeding program was
initiated in the Raddas area of Mujib Biosphere
Reserve in 1989, using 10 captive-bred Nubian Ibex from San Diego Zoo (born
spring 1989) along with a locally captured sub-adult male (Khoury et al. 2012).
By 1992, the herd had grown to 34 individuals and to 68 adults in 1995. The
captive breeding program was terminated in 2006 and RSCN began releasing
animals into the wild in 1997 (eight individuals of each sex). In February
1998, six males were released, followed by two main releases in October 1999
(19 individuals) and December 1999 (50 individuals). A survey conducted after
the release recorded 150 individuals from various localities within Mujib
Biosphere Reserve, 143 of them in the Raddas area
(Eid et al. 2020). Small numbers were found in several other parts of the
reserve, 103 in total (RSCN, unpub. data).
A second captive breeding program
was initiated at Wadi Rum Protected Area in 2014, when 100 Nubian Ibex (30
males and 70 females) were donated by the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi. In
October 2015, following appropriate veterinary and genetic tests, 60
individuals were released into the wild (E. Eid pers. obs. 2015). The
population in Wadi Rum Protected Area in 2018 is estimated at 80 individuals.
Thus, the current population in Jordan is currently estimated at around 480–500
(Dana Biosphere Reserve – 250, Mujib Biosphere Reserve – 150, Wadi Rum
Protected Area – 80) (Eid et al. 2020).
Threats
Hunting of ibex was legal until
1978 and is considered the major cause of the sharp decline in Jordan (Eid et
al. 2020) and across its range in the Arabian Peninsula (Habibi 1994). Catullo et al. (1996) stated that competition for forage
with domestic livestock and hunting for food and trophies were the major
threats in Dana Reserve. Hatough-Bouran & Disi (1991) stated that the pressure on the ibex habitat
was also becoming more acute because of decreased mobility of the Bedouin
livestock herders. The availability and distribution of waterholes which are a
key resource may fluctuate from year to year and thus impact on ibex
populations (Amr 2012). Disturbance by high levels of tourists at watering,
feeding and birthing sites may also threaten the population. Aloufi & Eid (2014) reported ibex trapped or collected
from the mountainous and desert areas of the Tabuk region close to the
Jordanian border and sold for USD 734–800. Eid & Handal
(2018) reported that images of 115 Nubian Ibex that had been shot by hunters
were posted on Facebook in 2015, which is a cause for serious alarm.
Conservation Actions
This species occurs in Dana and
Mujib Biosphere Reserves, as well as Wadi Rum Protected Area (Eid et al. 2020).
It is protected by law, but illegal hunting still poses a threat. Therefore,
the Government of Jordan and the RSCN are highly recommended to enforce
effective anti-poaching measures in reserves and consider further
reintroduction programs following IUCN guidelines to support the wild
population. Nubian Ibex is listed as Endangered in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020).
(E.) Least Concern
(E1.) Sus scrofa
(Linnaeus, 1758) Wild Boar
[Least Concern (IUCN), Least
Concern regionally, numbers unknown but common]
Distribution and status
Boessneck & Von den Driesch (1978) and
Gerrard et al. (1988) stated that remains were excavated from several archeological sites dating back to the upper Paleolithic period. Tristram (1884), reported that the wild
boar “is abundant in every part of Jordan, even in the desert habitats”. S. scrofa was introduced to Azraq
where it became common but later disappeared according to Meinertzhagen
(1924). Wild Boars occur in river valleys, cultivated areas, and forested
hills; they may be observed in desert areas but do not move far from water
(Harrison & Bates 1991). Amr & Disi (1988)
frequently saw this animal around north Shounah and
the Yarmouk River. Qumsiyeh et al. (1996) reported a
large population in Jordan and confirmed that this species is still common in
the Jordan valley, south of Ghor Safi. Eid & Ananbeh (2009) reported this species as common in Ajloun Forest Reserve (Figure 8). Wild Boars are
agricultural pests and have caused damage to citrus farms along the Jordan
Valley (Rahamat 1982).
There is no accurate estimate for
the population of the Wild Boar in Jordan, but it is not considered threatened
and numbers are increasing (Quemsiyeh et al. 1996;
Amr 2012; Eid et al. 2020). The government allowed hunting of Wild Boar in 2010
to control its numbers due to the increasing damage to crops, and as a
precautionary step in controlling swine flu (Amr (2012). However, the
population is increasing for various reasons, including their presence in
border areas which are protected by the army, the fact that this animal is not
allowed as a food for Muslims (Quemsiyeh et al.
1996), and the lack of interest by hunters.
Threats
There are no significant threats
to the Wild Boar in Jordan. Eid & Handal (2018)
reported 40 specimens killed, based on Facebook posts by Jordanian hunters.
Conservation Actions
Wild Boar was listed as Least
Concern in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020). The species occurs in Ajloun
Forest Reserve, Dibeen Forest Reserve, and Yarmouk
Forest Reserve (Eid et al. 2020). No specific conservation measures are
required.
Discussion
and conclusions
The majority of ungulate species
in Jordan have been exposed to many pressures and threats that have
significantly reduced their numbers and led to the extinction of several of
them. The major threat is extensive and uncontrolled hunting, accelerated by
the increased power of modern automatic weapons, and the development and use of
all-terrain vehicles which enable people to venture into any part of the
territory of Jordan. A second important factor is a significant increase in the
numbers of domestic livestock, resulting in a serious deterioration in the
quality of rangelands through depletion of palatable plants, soil erosion, and
desertification. Feral dogs may also predate wild ungulates. These factors are
considered the major challenges that need to be overcome to ensure the success
of any future re-introduction projects in Jordan
Mesopotamian Fallow Deer has been
extirpated from Jordan and populations elsewhere are so small that establishing
a captive breeding program for reintroduction appears unrealistic at present.
Arabian Oryx and Wild Ass have also been extirpated, although a small
semi-captive population of Wild Ass is maintained in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve, and larger populations of Arabian Oryx in Shumari
Wildlife Reserve and Wadi Rum Protected Area. There are substantial global and
regional ex situ populations of both species, especially Arabian Oryx, that
could provide source stock but releases into the wild currently face formidable
obstacles, principally the unavailability of an extensive area of good habitat
and the difficulty in protecting such wide-ranging species from hunting.
Mountain Gazelle range in Jordan
has contracted to the extreme north of the Jordan valley and no confirmed
observations have been reported since 2015. Animals may cross into the country
from adjoining areas, but a reinforcement and reintroduction programme appear
the most reliable way to re-establish their permanent presence. Roe deer have
been reintroduced but again no sightings have been confirmed since 2015 and it
is unclear whether the animals have failed to establish or have dispersed.
Arabian Sand Gazelle and Dorcas
Gazelle now occur only in very small populations (<50) in the north-eastern
desert and southern Rift Valley (Wadi Araba), respectively. Such small
populations are highly vulnerable to extinction from ongoing threats,
stochastic events, and low genetic diversity. Both species appear close to
extirpation in the wild in Jordan.
Reinforcement of the surviving populations, and/or reintroductions to
other sites within their former range are needed to ensure the persistence of
these two species in Jordan.
Nubian Ibex is present in higher
numbers (<500) and occurs in Mujib and Dana Biosphere Reserves as well as
Wadi Rum Protected Area, and thus receives some protection. However, these
sites are isolated from each other by physical barriers (Eid et al. 2020). So,
efforts to identify, and then protect, corridors between them may become a
priority.
There are breeding herds of some
species at Shumari Wildlife Reserve, and animals held
at Al Mawa’ for Nature and Conservation, belonging to
the Princess Alia Foundation, could also be used as a genetic reservoir.
However, the current conditions at both these sites are not sustainable, since
the breeding groups are increasing, and there is no long-term program for
release into the wild due to the existing threats and land use issues, so this
will place more financial burdens on the hosting institutions.
The growing interest in
business-based conservation that relies on the eco-tourism sector rather than
the previous modality of nature-based conservation is another factor that might
hinder the establishment of new programs to reintroduce ungulate species.
Enforcement has been strengthened following the establishment of the Royal
Department for Environmental Protection (RDEP) in 2006, which was merged with
the tourism police in 2020 to form the Royal Department for Environmental
Protection and Tourism. However, increasing the number of protection staff,
stronger logistical and financial support as well as capacity building
programs, are required to ensure that enforcement and protection are effective.
Financial resources may be allocated by the Government of Jordan represented by
the Ministry of Environment to support the work of the RSCN, RDEP and other
organizations in strengthening enforcement and conservation efforts as well as
conducting research within Jordan’s protected areas. Scientific research needs
to be designed to support policies, development of legislation, and management
of species and habitats. More collaboration and coordination have to be
developed between experts in this field, and the responsible entities in order
to exchange information, and research outputs.
However, it would be preferable
to begin by regarding these charismatic species as an aspect of natural capital
in which to invest for the future. Successful re-introduction programs can be a
key driver of nature-based tourism, instead of following a narrower,
business-based tourism model. All international standards should be applied,
especially the IUCN guidelines on reintroductions and translocations, before
considering any species for re-introduction.
The latest red data book of the
mammals in Jordan (Eid et al. 2020) highlighted the alarming situation, with
four ungulate species assessed as Critically Endangered and three species
Regionally Extinct or Extinct in the Wild in Jordan. This highlights the need
to ensure effective enforcement and initiate measures to reverse habitat
degradation and control of hunting in order to facilitate reintroduction
programs and develop more collaboration and partnerships at regional and global
levels, increase awareness of the importance of ungulates, and above all to
enhance finance allocations for conservation purposes.
Table 1. Ungulate species
recorded in Jordan, past and present.
Species name |
Common name |
IUCN Red List (global)1 |
Jordan National Red List2 |
Notes |
Addax nasomaculatus |
Addax |
Critically Endangered |
Regionally Extinct |
Archaeological records |
Bos primigenius |
Aurochs |
Extinct |
Regionally Extinct |
Archaeological records |
Cervus elaphus |
Red Deer |
Least Concern |
Regionally Extinct |
Archaeological records |
Dama mesopotamica |
Mesopotamian Fallow Deer |
Critically Endangered |
Regionally Extinct |
More than 250 in enclosures on
a private farm |
Oryx leucoryx |
Arabian Oryx |
Vulnerable |
Regionally Extinct |
230 in total in enclosures
within two protected areas |
Equus hemionus
|
Wild Ass |
Near Threatened |
Regionally Extinct |
Syrian Wild Ass (E. h. hemippus) is Extinct. 32 E. h. onager
in a protected area |
Gazella gazella |
Palestinian Mountain Gazelle |
Endangered |
Critically Endangered |
Not seen since 2015 |
Capreolus capreolus |
European Roe Deer |
Least Concern |
Critically Endangered |
Not seen since 2015 |
Gazella marica |
Arabian Sand Gazelle |
Vulnerable |
Critically Endangered |
Less than 50 individuals |
Gazella dorcas |
Dorcas Gazelle |
Vulnerable |
Critically Endangered |
Less than 50 individuals |
Capra nubiana |
Nubian Ibex |
Vulnerable |
Endangered |
Less than 500 individuals |
Sus scrofa |
Wild Boar |
Least Concern |
Least Concern |
Numbers unknown but common |
1 www.iucnredlist.org; 2 Eid
et al. (2020) |
For figures & image - - click here
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