Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2021 | 13(8): 18967–18974
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6216.13.8.18967-18974
#6216 | Received 24 May 2020 | Final received
03 July 2021 | Finally accepted 07 July 2021
On the occurrence of the
Himalayan Wolf Canis lupus, L. 1758 (Mammalia:
Carnivora: Canidae) in the Gaurishankar Conservation
Area, Nepal; its existence confirmed through sign and visual evidence in Rolwaling Valley
Bishnu Prasad Pandey 1,
Shankar Man Thami 2, Rabin Shrestha 3 & Mukesh
Kumar Chalise 4
1–3 Gaurishankar
Conservation Area Project (GCAP), Head Quarters, Singati
Dolakha. C/O National Trust for Nature Conservation
(NTNC), P.O. Box. no. 3712, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.
4 Tribhuvan University, Central
Department of Zoology (TU/CDZ), Kirtipur, Kathmandu,
Nepal.
4 Nepal Biodiversity Research
Society (NEBORS), Lalitpur, Nepal.
1 pandeybp@gmail.com (corresponding
author), 2 thamishankar@gmail.com, 3 rabin.metlar@gmail.com,
4 mukesh57@hotmail.com
Editor: Shannon Michelle Barber-Meyer,
Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Ely, USA. Date
of publication: 26 July 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Pandey, B.P., S.M. Thami, R.
Shrestha & M.K. Chalise (2021). On the occurrence of the
Himalayan Wolf Canis lupus, L. 1758 (Mammalia:
Carnivora: Canidae) in the Gaurishankar Conservation
Area, Nepal; its existence confirmed through sign and visual evidence in Rolwaling Valley. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(8): 18967–18974. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6216.13.8.18967-18974
Copyright: © Pandey et al. 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: National Trust for
Nature Conservation (NTNC) via Gaurishankar
Conservation Area Project (GCAP). Part of the Annual Program Budget for the 2075/76 fiscal year. Approved
Budget: NRs 200 thousands only.
Competing interests: There are
no competing interest in designing
the study program, execution of fieldwork, data collection
and drafting manuscript for publications.
Author details: Mr. Bishnu
Prasad Pandey, Conservation
Officer at National Trust for
Nature Conservation (NTNC), Gaurishankar
Conservation Area Project, Unit Conservation
Office, Chaku, Sindhupalchok,
Nepal. Prof.
Dr. Mukesh Kumar Chalise, Professor of Zoology
at Tribhuvan University, Central department
of Zoology, Kirtipur, Nepal
and President at Nepal Biodiversity
Research Society (NEBORS), Lalitpur, Nepal. Mr. Shankarman Thami, Natural
Resource Conservation Assistant (NRCA) at National
Trust for Nature Conservation
(NTNC)/Gaurishankar Conservation
Area Project (GCAP). Mr. Rabin Shrestha,
Natural Resource Conservation Assistant (NRCA) at
National Trust for Nature Conservation
(NTNC)/Gaurishankar Conservation
Area Project (GCAP).
Author contributions: BPP—team leader for research
design, field work, data analysis, mapping and manuscript preparation. MKC-—research design, data analysis,
manuscript preparation and review. He was the mentor for this study.
ST—fieldwork, data gathering, sorting, analysis, map work and manuscript
preparation and review. RS–data gathering, sorting, analysis, map work and
manuscript preparation and review.
Acknowledgements: We appreciate the
National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) and Gaurishankar
Conservation Area Project (GCAP) and the project chief Satya Narayan Shah for
allocating financial and human resources for conducting a biodiversity survey
in the Gaurishankar high mountains. The role of local
conservation area management committee and subcommittees is noteworthy as the
personnel had provided important information about the primitive routes and
helped finding the potential habitat of large carnivores like the Himalayan
Wolf. We acknowledge the contribution from local Rimpoche
Ngawang Tenzing Lama for
providing important information about wolf recovery on Rolwaling
valley. Moreover, we are also thankful to Pema Gyalje
Sherpa for his assistance in logistics and guiding the research team. We would
also like to acknowledge the sincere engagements of the reviewers finalizing
the draft. And last but not the least the outcome of this research would have
become impossible without the support of the Nepal Biodiversity Research
Society, local guide Mr. Chhoibir Tamang, porters,
and the kitchen staff.
Abstract: The Himalayan Wolf Canis lupus L., a top predator of the Third
Pole, is proposed to be of a distinct wolf lineage (C. himalayensis)
relative to the Holarctic Grey Wolf as described by mtDNA
analyses. A biodiversity survey organized by the Gaurishankar
Conservation Area Project (GCAP) has captured images of wolves in three
different regions, and the study team has observed wolf scats in five
additional regions above the tree line in Rolwaling
Valley. Further, interviews with local herders provided evidence of wolf
depredation of livestock in the area. The Rolwaling
Valley in the Gaurishankar Conservation Area was the
study area which was divided into 12, 4 x 4 km (16 km2) grid cells,
each supplied with one camera trap operated continuously from June to November
2019 (only 6 out of 12 cameras functioned for the duration of our study). Wolf
detections were recorded by camera traps from Yalung
Pass (4,956 m), Tsho-Rolpa glacial Lake (4,536 m) and
the Dudhkunda ridgeline (5,091 m). The photo capture
rate index (PCRI) for wolves was 0.71. Our study reports the first photographic
evidence of the Himalayan Wolf in the Rolwaling
Valley.
Keywords: Camera trap, PCRI, Scat.
introduction
The Himalayan Wolf Canis lupus is a top predator of the Third
Pole (Prater 1971; Menon 2003; Chetri
et al. 2017; Boitani et al. 2018; Werhahn
et al. 2020). It was proposed to be a distinct wolf lineage (C. himalayensis; Aggarwal et al. 2007) relative to the
Holarctic Grey Wolf as described by mtDNA analyses
(Sharma et al. 2004; Chetri et al. 2016; Chetri et al. 2017; Werhahn et
al. 2017; Boitani et al. 2018). Categorized as ‘Least
Concern’ by the IUCN (Boitani et al. 2018), it is
considered ‘Critically Endangered’ by the National Red List in Nepal (Jnawali et al. 2011). International trade is generally
prohibited by CITES (The Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) with the Himalayan Wolves in Nepal listed
under Annex 1 (listed species are the most endangered species and are
threatened with extinction; CITES 2019). Furthermore, capture, killing, and
trade are strictly prohibited as well by declaring this species under
Schedule-I in Nepal by The National Parks and Wildlife Protection Act, 1973
(NLC 1973).
In and around the lap of the
Himalaya, wolves were recorded by researchers at the Indo-Pakistan Himalaya and
also from the Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand states of India near the western
border of Nepal above 3,500 m (Sharma et al. 2004; Bhattacharya & Sathyakumar 2010; Chetri et al.
2016; Werhahn et al. 2017). In Nepal, the wolf is
reported from all the Himalayan protected area systems and adjoining wilderness
areas above 4,000 m (Subba et al. 2017). The areas
that are considered main wolf habitat in Nepal include Manasalu
and Annapurna Conservation Area (Chetri et al. 2016,
2017, Subba et al. 2017), Shey
Phoksundo National Park and Humla
district of western Nepal (Werhahn et al. 2017; Subba et al. 2017), Dhorpatan
Hunting Reserve (Jnawali et al. 2011), and Kanchenjungha Conservation Area (Jnawali
et al. 2011; Subba et al. 2017); and now its
existence has also been confirmed in the Gaurishankar
Conservation Area (this study).
Research Methods
Study area
The Gaurishankar
Conservation Area (GCA) is one of the newest protected areas of Nepal, covering
2,179 km2 in the northern part of the Ramechhap,
Dolakha, and Sindhupalchok
districts of the Bagmati Province of Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (Bajracharya et al. 2011, NLC 2074 VS). It extends between
85°46.8’-86°34.8’ East & 27°34.2’-28°10’ North, and ranges in elevation
980–7,134 m (Bajracharya et al. 2011; GCAP 2013). The
GCA was established in 2010 (GoN 2010) connecting two
national parks in the high mountains (i.e., Sagarmatha National Park in the
east and Langtang National Park in the west) with the northern boundary
extending to the Nepal-China border (Bajracharya et
al. 2011). The valley is situated in the northeastern
corner of the GCA, approximately 50 km west of Mt. Everest (Sacherer
2011).
Our study area included 16 major
vegetation types, river valleys of Koshi River basin,
snow-capped mountains, and temperate-alpine grasslands supporting 565 species
of vascular plants, 76 (71 species
described in GCAP, 2013 and five added from this study) species of
mammals, 252 species of birds, 12 species of amphibians, 27 reptiles, and 27
species of fishes (Bajracharya et al. 2011; GCAP
2013). The Rolwaling valley (hereafter, “the valley”
unless otherwise indicated) is home to elusive mountain species including Snow
Leopard Panthera uncia,
Red Panda Ailurus fulgens,
Musk Deer Moschus leucogaster,
Red Fox Vulpes vulpes, Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus, Satyr Tragopan Tragopan satyra,
and many more species. The valley elevation ranges 2,000–7,134 m.
Gaurishankar Conservation Area includes two ‘beyul’ (a Tibetan word meaning sacred) valleys named Lapchi and Rolwaling where the
majority of human inhabitants (i.e., the Sherpa community) follow Buddhism where as in other valleys, there is a mosaic of
Hindu-Buddhist religion occurring (Bajracharya et al.
2011; Sacherer 2011; GCAP 2013). The Rolwaling valley is sacred landscape guided by Tibetan
Buddhism and inhabited by the Sherpa community. Followers of the ‘Padmasambhava’ sects of Buddhism (Sacherer
2011) strictly obey and maintain a ban on animal sacrifice and consumption of
animal meat, and people in this region believe that consuming meat products and
burning of garlic brings misfortune (Lama 2019). Thus, wild animals are not
harvested for their meat, providing some measure of wildlife protection.
Traditionally, the valley dwellers rely on the agro-pastoral
economy with transhumance animal herding, the primary cause of human-wolf
negative interaction in this valley. Although, the killing of animals is
prohibited, the last known wolf pack in this area was poisoned by Yak herders
~50 years ago (Sherpa 2019).
The Rolwaling
Valley (215 km2) covers the landscapes of lower temperate forests up
to the alpine zone. Major vegetation types of the study area were Quercus forests,
lower-temperate mixed broadleaved forests, upper temperate broadleaved forests,
rhododendron forests, and upper temperate conifer forests (Bajracharya,
et al. 2011). The higher areas are covered by Abies-Juniper
forests and birch-rhododendron forests, whereas the alpine zone comprises
alpine shrub land, scrubland, open grassland, glaciers, and rocky outcrops (Bajracharya et al. 2011; GCAP 2013). Himalayan Tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus
schistaceus., Common Goral Naemorhedus
goral, Assamese Monkey Macaca assamensis, Himalayan Monal,
Blood Pheasant, Royal’s Pika Ochotona roylei are frequently observed along the trails while
pellets of Red Panda Ailurus fulgens, Musk Deer Moschus
leucogaster and Himalayan Serow
Capricornis thar are
visible in off trails. Scats and fresh tracks of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia,
common Leopard Panthera pardus,
Wolf, Red Fox, and Weasels Mustella sp.
are common along the forest trails used by local herders, livestock, and
wildlife. Important prey species for top predators of high mountain; the Blue Sheep
has neither been reported by researchers (Ale et al. 2010) nor by the local
herders in this valley (Lama 2019; Sherpa 2019) though historical collection of
Blue Sheep horn is reported in Ale et al. (2010).
Blocks and grids
We divided the GCA into five
blocks as defined by geographical barriers and ease of research management and
we selected the Rolwaling Valley block for this
study. A recent research objective in this valley was to assess mammalian
diversity, with grids created to target Snow Leopard detection (Jackson et al.
2005). The valley covers 215 km2 with accessible areas divided into
16 km2 square grids (Figure 1) following Jackson et al. (2005). We
focused our monitoring efforts on those grids above 3,000 m targeting large
mammals of the upper temperate-alpine region with low human habitation (Bajimaya 2000). Altogether, we placed one camera in each of
the12 grids that were 3,000–5,500 m in elevation.
Camera trapping
In the current study, the target
species were the elusive species of the highlands including the Snow Leopard,
Wolf, Lynx and their prey species. Camera trapping was selected as the primary
method given feasibility and logistical challenges. (i.e., limited resources
precluded transect and genetic surveys).
The study team tried to minimize
disturbance to wildlife throughout the survey, although livestock herders traveled periodically to the survey area. Cameras were
placed far from major trekking routes and the primary trails used by herders
were omitted for camera security reasons. This also minimized the chance of
capturing images of non-target animals (livestock) and humans. Cameras were
left unattended for an extended period (around six months), during which the
possibility of wildlife occurrence was estimated to be the highest based on
various signs and marks of animals.
Bushnell Trophy Camera Brown
(Model 119436) and Bushnell Trophy Camera w/viewscreen (Model 119455) were used
for monitoring animals. Cameras operated continuously for six months between 09
June and 09 November 2019. Cameras were set to image capture mode with one
minute lag between triggers with three images captured per trigger. No fixed
camera height was applied as per the objective of the study but cameras were
set to focus around 30 cm height over the trail i.e. some cameras were tilted
to achieve the specified focal height.
We identified sites of likely
animal movement within each grid by visually examining the site
characteristics. The sites with high frequency of signs of animal like tracks,
scat deposits, pellets, rubbing on trees, scent marks, and trail junctions were
selected for camera installment, following the Snow
Leopard monitoring manual for Nepal (Bajimaya 2000).
Moreover, valley bottoms and ridgelines, where the likelihood of megafauna
movement is high (Jackson et al. 2005), were also selected for camera
deployment. No baits or trail modifications were used.
Data analysis
Photocapturerate index (PCRI) is used as an index
of animal abundance because of its general relationship with the density of
target species (Rovero & Marshall 2009: Lahkar et al. 2018). Although, its application is better
suited to the prey species (Rovero & Marshall
2009; Lahkar et al. 2018), we applied it to predators
as well because of limited data available for capture recapture analysis and
because individual identification of wolves was not reliable.
We calculated total operation
time summing up data from all cameras that were functional (6 out of 12) (i.e.,
six cameras were not functional: four cameras triggered continuously resulting
in filled SD cards within a couple of days, rain water leakage damaged the
storage device in one camera, and one camera was lost during this study). Every
photo event was recorded by a photo analysis using a digital projector. To
define a photographic event, 30 minutes between events of same species was used
to assure independent data points.
Additional
lines of evidence
Wolf scats were opportunistically
observed and recorded during other field work. Also, interviews were conducted
with local herders to obtain information on wolf depredation of livestock in
the area.
Results and Discussion
The PCRIs
for mammals and birds were calculated separately (Table 1). Among mammals, Pika was the most frequently photographed, followed by
cattle (Yak), Red Fox, Yellow-bellied Weasel, and Wolf (0.71 animals per 100
nights, i.e., 0.71 PCRI values) (Table 1). Ungulate prey species that are
frequently observed along mountain slopes, such as the Himalayan Tahr, Common Goral, and the Himalayan Serow,
had lower PCRI values. However, game birds such as Blood Pheasant, Himalayan
Snow Cock, and Himalayan Monal, were frequently
photographed (Table 1).
Based on
the photographic evidence, all wolf detections consisted of single wolves, no
packs or pairs were detected in the six captures of wolf (Figure 2). Sniffing
on scent sprays and travel were common behaviors observed.
The movements of wolf were recorded by three cameras located at 5,091 m, 4,536
m, and 4,956 m in the Rolwaling Valley. This is the
first ever photographic record of wolf presence, not only in Rolwaling Valley, but also in the GCA.
Wolves were
captured during early morning (07:12:14), mid-day (14:07:19 & 16:47:03),
and night (01:22:02, 04:05:35, 20:57:31). All the capture sites were in open
grass land and moraines above tree line. No preference over the geographical
aspects was observed as animals were caught on southern, valley bottom, and
northern aspects. Interestingly, the Wolf and Snow Leopards were using the same
trails and deposited their signs in front of the camera. The other predators
captured were Red Fox, Yellow-bellied Weasel were captured on the sites
where Wolves were captured; so were the Pika, Yak,
and Snow Cocks. The cameras in the periphery recorded Musk Deer, Red
Panda, Himalayan Monal, Blood Pheasant Ithaginis cruentus, Goral,
Himalayan Tahr,
Himalayan Serow, and some small birds. Despite
evidence of frequent human disturbances (such as tourist’s visits, animal
herding, pilgrimage), just a single event was recorded by a camera during our
study.
Scat observation and depredation
history
Scats of wolves were observed
during transect walks for finding suitable camera sites (Figure 3).
Identifiable scats were observed over 3,900 m on Rhododendron anthopogon dominated scrublands, on the human/domestic
animal tracks. Also, tracks were observed in moraines. Recently, a couple of
livestock depredation events near Naa village of the
valley were recorded. In both occasions herders had managed to chase down small
packs of Wolves (Lama 2019; Sherpa 2019). Table 2 and Figure 2 show the sites
where signs of Wolf were found and general site characteristics. Earlier, a
reconnaissance survey carried out by GCAP (2016) also observed Wolf scat in the
Numbur Valley (behind Yalung
Peak).
Although, the presence of the
wolf in GCA was reported based on interviews and indirect signs (Bajracharya et al. 2011), our study confirms its presence
through photographs, scat observations, and information from livestock
depredations (Figure 4). This paper reports the first visual proofof the wolf in Rolwaling
Valley. To our knowledge, this is probably the first ever photograph of the
wolf in the Gaurishankar landscapes visually
confirming its re-colonization in the valley.
Conclusion
This study provides the first
ever photographic evidence confirming the presence of the Himalayan Wolf in the
northern area (Rolwaling region) of GCA in Nepal. Six
wolf-detection events were obtained by camera trapping, all consisting of
single wolves. Also, the five wolf scats and tracks that were observed during
camera sites selection and depredation information from local interviewees further
confirmed the wolf’s presence in this area. The sites, where the evidence of
wolf were confirmed, also overlapped with areas used by snow leopard and red
foxes. Although, this study was not
intended to quantify human-carnivore conflict, interviews confirmed that Snow
Leopards are not the only predators in Rolwaling
region that accounts for human wildlife interactions, especially in relation to
the depredation of domesticated animals such as mountain goat and sheep, as
well as Yak and ‘Djokpa’ (cross breed between Yak and
cow). Our study aimed to assess the mega faunal biodiversity in the Rolwaling area. Additional research is warranted,
specifically a more in-depth assessment of the status, habitat range, behavior and ecological role of the Wolf. In part because
wolves may be contributing to human wildlife conflict in the high Himalayan
regions, conservation interventions may be needed to prevent local extinction
of this species as a result of human-retaliatory killings. Furthermore, because
the taxonomy of this Wolf is being debated and may result in a unique species
identified, we suggest a precautionary conservation strategy be developed and
implemented.
Table 1. Photo capture rate index
(PCRI) values for captured animals.
Mammals |
Birds |
||||
Species |
Events |
PCRI |
Species |
Events |
PCRI |
Pika |
75 |
8.85 |
Blood Pheasant |
28 |
3.30 |
Cattle |
66 |
7.78 |
Himalayan Snow Cock |
25 |
2.95 |
Red Fox |
23 |
2.71 |
Red-billed Chough |
20 |
2.36 |
Yellow-bellied Weasel |
8 |
0.94 |
Himalayan Monal |
14 |
1.65 |
Wolf |
6 |
0.71 |
Blue Whistling Thrush |
6 |
0.71 |
Common Goral |
4 |
0.47 |
Alpine Accentor |
2 |
0.24 |
Himalayan Serow |
3 |
0.35 |
Hoopoe |
2 |
0.24 |
Stone Marten |
3 |
0.35 |
Snow Partridge |
2 |
0.24 |
Snow Leopard |
3 |
0.35 |
Laughing Thrush |
1 |
0.12 |
Human |
2 |
0.24 |
Raptor |
1 |
0.12 |
Yellow-throated Marten |
2 |
0.24 |
Tibetan Snow Cock |
1 |
0.12 |
Himalayan Tahr |
1 |
0.12 |
Yellow-billed Chough |
1 |
0.12 |
Musk Deer |
1 |
0.12 |
|
|
|
Red Panda |
1 |
0.12 |
|
|
|
Small cat |
1 |
0.12 |
|
|
|
Total mammal events |
198 |
|
Total bird events |
103 |
|
Table 2. Other signs of wolf
presence in the Rolwaling valley.
Place |
Altitude (in m) |
Aspect (degrees) |
Slope (degrees) |
Sign type |
Age |
Habitat |
Vegetation |
Disturbance |
Remarks |
Ramding Up |
4,072 |
110 |
22 |
Scat |
Fresh |
Scrubland |
Rhododendron anthopogon |
Mountaineering & Grazing |
During site selection |
Beding-Na |
3,967 |
192 |
23 |
Livestock depredation |
Old |
Scrubland |
Juniperussp |
Trekking & Grazing |
Inferred from interview |
Na |
4,413 |
262 |
40 |
Livestock depredation |
Fresh/ old |
Scrubland |
Rhododendron anthopogon |
Trekking & Grazing |
Inferred from interview |
TshoRolpa-Dudhkunda |
4,735 |
312 |
5 |
Scat |
Old |
Moraine |
Rhododendron anthopogon |
Trekking & Grazing |
During site selection |
Dudhkunda lekh (near camera trap) |
5,060 |
265 |
28 |
Scat |
Old |
Open grassland |
Grasses |
Grazing |
During site selection |
Dudhkunda |
4,872 |
187 |
15 |
Scat |
Old |
Glacier |
Rhododendron anthopogon |
Trekking & Grazing |
During site selection |
Gumdel (outside this
valley) |
4,017 |
307 |
38 |
Scat |
Fresh (collected in 2016) |
Scrubland |
Abies spectabilis |
Grazing |
During reconnaissance survey |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
For
figures & images - - click here
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