Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 September 2020 | 12(13): 16819–16830
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5640.12.13.16819-16830
#5640 | Received 19 December 2019 | Final
received 25 June 2020 | Finally accepted 02 September 2020
Commercially and medicinally
significant aquatic macrophytes: potential for improving livelihood security of
indigenous communities in northern Bihar, India
Shailendra Raut 1, Nishikant Gupta 2, Mark Everard 3 &
Indu Shekhar Singh 4
1,4 ICAR-Research
Complex for Eastern Region, Research Centre for Makhana, Darbhanga, Bihar
846005, India.
2 Department of
Geography and Environmental Management, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
3 University of
the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
1 shailenmraut10@gmail.com,
2 nish200684@gmail.com (corresponding author), 3 Mark.Everard@uwe.ac.uk,
4
induciah@rediffmail.com induciah@rediffmail.com
Editor: José Pizarro-Neyra, National University of Tacna, Perú. Date of
publication: 26 September 2020 (online & print)
Citation:
Raut, S., N. Gupta, M. Everard & I.S. Singh (2020). Commercially
and medicinally significant aquatic macrophytes: potential for improving
livelihood security of indigenous communities in northern Bihar, India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 12(13): 16819–16830. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5640.12.13.16819-16830
Copyright: © Raut et al. 2020. Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction,
and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to
the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: ICAR Research
Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar 800014, India.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Shailendra Raut and Indu Shekhar Singh are currently working at the Research
Centre for Makhana, Darbhanga, Bihar, India as Scientists in the area of
wetland ecosystem and cultivation of commercial macrophytes. Nishikant Gupta
is a water and climate scientist working to build resilient systems in the
fields of livelihoods and ecosystem services.
Mark Everard is an
Associate Professor at UWE-Bristol, UK working on freshwater ecosystems,
livelihoods and ecosystem services.
Author contribution: SR prepared the map of the study area, was involved in
the site selection, market survey, and methodology. SR and ISS collected the
field data and were involved in the identification of species. NG and ME
participated in the methodology selection and evaluation of the commercial
macrophytes. All authors participated in preparing the final version of the
manuscript.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the Director,
ICAR-RCER, Patna, Bihar, India for providing necessary survey facilities, and
S. Borkar, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany,
RTMU, Nagpur for providing his valuable guidance.
Introduction
Aquatic macrophytes, also known as hydrophytes, are
large plants found in the margins or littoral zones, surface or submerged bed
of water bodies. They may be emergent,
submerged or floating, rooted or unrooted in habit, with associated adaptations
to the leaves, stems and/or roots matching the requirements of these aquatic
environments (Bornette & Puijalon
2009; Peters & Lodge 2009; Rejmankova 2011). In addition, hydrophytes may serve as
secondary, often seasonal habitats for numerous living organisms, with further
geomorphological roles such as trapping and accreting sediment or influencing
water levels and flows (Holmes & Raven 2014). Hydrophytes also produce oxygen, are
significant for primary production (Nag et al. 2019), and play pivotal roles in
chemical and energy cycles including important roles in decontamination of
polluted water (Pandit 1984). Aquatic
macrophytes thereby play key roles in many functions within aquatic ecosystems,
generating a diversity of ecosystem services beneficial directly and indirectly
to human society (Engelhardt & Ritchie 2001; Cherry 2011). The significance of these various roles must
necessarily be included in plans for the management and restoration of wetlands
(Kaplan et al. 1998; Larson et al. 2019).
Some of the direct ecosystem services provided by
water plants occur through their roles as valuable bioresources with
significant associated socioeconomic or subsistence values for indigenous
communities. This contribution may be
highly locally significant in India, where indigenous communities comprise over
8.2% of the national population (Ministry of Tribal Affairs 2013). Indigenous people traditionally use wetland
plants for food, fodder and medicine and for making a range of household and
artistic products in various Indian states including Bihar, Odisha, West
Bengal, and throughout northeastern India (Maikhuri & Ramakrishnan 1992; Bunting et al. 2010; Jain
et al. 2010a; Saha et al. 2014; Gogoi
2016). Important plant species in these
regions, including Azolla spp., Chinese Water
Chestnut Eleocharis dulcis,
Water Chestnut Trapa natans,
Makhana Euryale ferox, Wild Rice Zizania
spp., Indian Lotus Nelumbo nucifera,
Water Spinach Ipomoea aquatica, Water Cress Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum,
Water Mimosa Neptunia oleracea, and
Wild Taro Colocasia esculenta, have
been harvested from wild stock, or cultivated in flooded areas for food,
aquaculture, livestock fodder, and religious significance (Hasan & Chakrabarti
2009; Meena & Rout 2016).
This pilot study surveys aquatic macrophytes, and
their associated ecological and livelihood benefits from the different wetland
ecosystems of northern Bihar. It further
investigates commercially important macrophytes and their utilities, and their
implications for enhancing livelihood and nutritional security for dependent
indigenous communities in northern Bihar.
The key objective is to develop initial proposals for sustainable and
wise use of this botanical resource and the wetland ecosystems that support it,
including recommendations for further research to inform conservation
strategies.
Materials and Methods
The dispersed perennial wetlands of Darbhanga
District, in the northern Bihar State, India, were selected for botanical
surveys. These wetlands are locally
known as ‘Chaur’ (floodplain wetlands/land
depressions), ‘Maun’ (ox-bow lakes) and both large and small ponds are
known as ‘Pokhari’.
Six sampling sites were selected for this pilot survey, taking account
of a range of hydrologic conditions, vegetation types, floodplains, and wetland
shores found in the surveyed region.
Selected sampling stations included two Pokhari
(Baghant & Mansar), two
Chaur (Sakari & Ladha), and two Maun (Simri &
Kusheswar Asthan) (Figure
1). Macrophyte sampling was conducted
along transects in each surveyed wetland.
Sites were sampled fortnightly from June to September 2019 during the
monsoon season, when aquatic macrophytes grow most prolifically under
seasonally wet conditions.
Identification of macrophytes was carried out with the help of relevant
literature (Biswas & Calder 1984; Cook 1996; Ramkrishna
& Siddique 2002). The collected
macrophytes were also checked by herbaria from the Department of Botany, CM
Science College, LNM University, Darbhanga.
The four major markets in Darbhanga City (Bazar Chauki, Donar, Darbhanga tower
and Lahariasarai tower) were selected for the market
surveys to assess socio-economic implications of aquatic macrophytes extracted
from these wetlands (Figure 1). Market
surveys consisted of identifying the economic value, quantity and preference of
buyers of the products obtained from the surveyed macrophytes.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with
consumers and informants from the sampling area to retrieve the information on
the economic importance of different parts of macrophytes. These included fruits (water chestnuts), pops
(makhana), flowers (lotus), leaves (taro) and some medicinal plants. The questions were developed based on the
findings of earlier field surveys and interaction with local ethnic groups in
the region by the authors (unpublished data).
Ethnic group selection was based on the voluntary willingness and the
availability of members in the study area during the field survey. Consent was requested and obtained from all
the participants to make notes of interviews.
Respondents were informed that all responses would be anonymized, so
that they felt free to express their views without attribution. Discussions took place primarily in local
languages and dialects. Gender
sensitivity was considered, including questioning of women by a female member
of the research team, though no inhibition was encountered in wider discussions
with female or other informants.
Conversation flowed freely with no evidence of it being dominated by any
individuals. Researchers fluent in local
languages translated the responses, taking written notes in English and
collating them following the meeting.
Additional input was derived from literature searches (as seen in the
citations used in this paper).
The literature was extensively interrogated
(peer-reviewed and non-peer reviewed papers, and grey literature articles) to
identify key attributes, chemical composition, ecosystem functions, and
medicinal and other uses of aquatic macrophyte species most commonly used and
traded in the study region. Google Scholar
was used as the preferred search engine using the macrophytes as key
terms. It was not possible to fully
structure the literature review due to the diversity of plant species and
habitats types in northern Bihar, their uses, and their range of associated
market and non-market values. Given the
breadth of research that had been conducted throughout the region, it was
important to analyse available literature for the studied macrophytes. Data and other information obtained through
previous extensive field surveys conducted by the authors have been
complemented with analysis of available data and a breadth of studies conducted
as the empirical basis of this paper.
Results and Discussion
Aquatic macrophyte surveys of selected wetland
ecosystems revealed a total of 61 relevant species of vascular plants. Most of the identified species were
Angiosperms, and only two were Pteridophytes.
The recorded Angiosperms included 33 species (54% of all species found)
of Dicotyledons spread over
21 families and 26 (42% of the survey total) species of
Monocotyledons from 13 families (Table 1).
Filamentous algae (species were not recorded) and Pteridophytes (two
species were recorded) were poorly represented in surveys during the monsoon
season, and found to be closely associated with makhana and water
chestnut. Figure 2 presents some of the
most significant macrophytes extracted for human uses; Table 2 summarizes their
chemical and nutritional characteristics derived from literature sources. Table 3 represents the survey prices of
commercial important aquatic macrophytes.
Based on the observed macrophytes from the study sites and the market
surveys, 10 macrophytes were identified as having the highest ecological and
commercial importance due to their environmental roles, utilities, market
price, availability, and preference by buyers in the markets: Azolla, Makhana, Water chestnut, Taro/elephant ear, Indian
lotus, Mandukaparni, Water spinach, Sweet flag,
Brahmi, and Bhringraj (see Table 3).
Among the floating species in this survey, the alien invasive
water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
was found to be widely distributed and abundant in the stagnant waters of
rivers, ditches and other wetland types.
The submerged macrophyte Hydrilla verticillata,
and the floating-leaved macrophyte Nymphoides
cristatum were both found to be very
common in the littoral zone of all examined wetlands. Macrophytes of high commercial value,
including Makhana and Water chestnut, were mostly reported from the large ponds
(Pokhari) and Chaur/Mauns (wetlands) where they were grown for production
purposes, though some were also reported growing naturally in the Mauns. The floating-leaved macrophyte Nelumbo
nucifera (lotus) was reported from temple pond and wetlands areas of 3–5m
depth. Macrophyte species from the
families Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, and Poaceae were mostly observed in the marginal portions of
the wetlands and adjacent lowland areas.
The attributes of the commercial macrophytes in terms of their
scientific importance, nutritional quality and quantity, and culture practices
possibly contributing to their preferred demand in the markets are summarized
in Tables 3 and 4.
Diversity and distribution
The sampled wetlands support a diversity of aquatic
macrophytes, which play various ecological roles as primary producers and in
the recycling of nutrients (Engelhardt & Ritchie 2001; Bornette
& Puijalon 2011).
Nutrient recycling from the decomposition of macrophytes at the end of
the growing season contributes to requirements for macrophyte growth in the
following growing period (Denny 1985).
From literature studies, appreciation of the conservation value of this
resource appears to be lacking.
Societal benefits supported by aquatic macrophytes
Aquatic macrophytes play significant roles in
supporting the needs of indigenous communities, in the forms of food, medicine
and tradeable commodities, in addition to diversifying habitat supporting
societally important aquatic fauna (Costanza et al. 1997; Petr 2000).
Our study finds that aquatic plants found in the
wetlands of northern Bihar are important for the subsistence, medicinal and
economic needs of local communities. In
addition to wild harvesting, utilization of these wetlands for the culture of
important aquatic macrophytes, such as Makhana and Water chestnut, has the
potential to enhance the livelihoods of indigenous communities. It is important to acknowledge the extent to
which indigenous communities are reliant upon these macrophytes for subsistence
as well as other food, aquaculture, livestock fodder, trading and religious
significance. Unstructured interviews
with community members within this pilot study revealed the dependence of
communities, however, with emerging opportunities such as more intensive forms
of aquaculture and habitat conversion for agriculture, this low-level and
inherently more sustainable dependence is now slowly giving way to habitat
exploitation for “quicker benefits”.
Given the significant health benefits of these
macrophytes for local people and more widely through trade, including their
utility in various pharmaceutical industries, it is critical to enhance the
capacity of local communities to explore the possibility of growing or
harvesting these plants on a sustainable basis as cash crops, further
supporting their livelihood options. These
values need to be recognized, valued and embedded into the policy environment
as a basis for sustainable management and wise use strategies, resisting or
better informing current trends towards more intensive forms of aquaculture
farms in the region.
Consequences of loss or degradation
Anthropogenic encroachment around the wetlands (such
as agriculture and run-off from farming, industrial influent of various types,
urbanization and associated sewage emissions) is exacerbated by lack of
awareness among local people and regulatory agencies regarding the role of
wetlands in the environment, with weak and poorly enforced regulation. Moreover, the presence of Eichhornia
crassipes, an alien macrophyte in Bihar,
threatens local biodiversity due to its high growth rate and tendency to form a
dense mat over the water surface (Howard & Harley 1998). These stressors have the potential to reduce
the depth of wetlands and negatively impact other desirable water plants such
as Water Chestnut, Lotus, and Makhana plants (Jain et al. 2010b). The recent boom of aquaculture industries in
northern Bihar has also negatively impacted the diversity of the recorded
macrophytes (pers. obs.). Indigenous communities which earlier relied on the
cultivation of these crops have moved towards the aquaculture sector due to
high profitability in a short period of time, in comparison to Makhana and
Water Chestnut culture. This has led to
the Chaur and Maun being converted to aquaculture
ponds, denying local communities the traditional uses and values they derived
from them.
Declining wetland extent and quality also results in
an associated decline in the diverse ecosystem service benefits that the
wetlands provide for wider societal wellbeing.
Conservation/wise use implications
The definition of “wise use” of wetlands according to Ramsar Commission is “…the maintenance of their
ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem
approaches, within the context of sustainable development” (Ramsar Commission 2010).
In the context of the diverse wetlands of northern Bihar, the
sustainable use of aquatic macrophytes, such as Makhana, Water Chestnut, Taro,
and Lotus, can serve as a key focus and indicator of progress with wise and
sustainable use. This may, for example,
take the form of sustainable levels of harvesting and/or cultivation of local
varieties of these plants in areas suitable for their production, safeguarding
overall ecological character and the many additional societal benefits that
flow from the wetland habitats that support them. Naturally available Taro, Azolla,
Water spinach, and other medicinal plants also need critical attention as they
are widely used, and relied on by many, for local consumption and medicinal
proposes.
Aquatic macrophyte diversity in the study
region plays an important role in the supporting aquatic ecosystems, including
as a resource for local livelihoods.
Therefore, incorporating the wise use of this botanical resource into
aquatic management strategies, in which the diverse societal benefits that it
provides is explicitly recognized as a key element of sustainable development,
can be influential in the sustainable conservation and livelihood needs of
local communities associated with the wetland resource. This approach needs to be linked with
planning approaches in the adjoining landscape to ensure that associated plans
and policies take account of potential adverse impacts on these wetlands.
Further research and development needs
This pilot survey of aquatic macrophyte occurrence,
uses and societal importance highlights the many values that flow to society
from the diverse Chaur, Maun, and Pokhari
wetlands naturally occurring in north Bihar.
Additional surveys can augment this preliminary evidence base concerning
plant distribution and socio-economic importance. Societal benefits flowing from the aquatic
macrophytes form only a small part of the total ecosystem services benefits
generated by these diverse wetlands.
Methods such as the RAWES (Rapid Assessment of Wetland Ecosystem
Services) approach (Ramsar Convention 2018), adopted
in October 2018 by the Ramsar Convention as a globally standard means for
assessment of wetland ecosystems on a systemic basis, enable the rapid, semi-quantitative assessment of wetland ecosystem
services. Wider ecosystem service
assessment can augment the knowledge base, recognizing more of the
often-overlooked societal benefits provided by these wetland systems.
This broader knowledge base can in
turn inform wise use strategies that reflect the many societal benefits
associated with simultaneous use and conservation of wetland systems, as a
bulkhead against their conversion for intensive and potentially unsustainable
uses such as aquaculture, agricultural and industrial development that yield a
narrow subset of short-term benefits whilst tending to undermine their wider
and longer-term societal values.
As India is a signatory of the Ramsar Convention, ensuring wise use of wetlands is an
obligation, also safeguarding their contributions to other areas of concern
such as their roles in regulating flooding, disaster risk reduction, carbon
sequestration, and fish recruitment. It
is also an important contributor to protecting tribal and other local community
rights for example under India’s Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. This study provides preliminary evidence of
the roles that aquatic macrophytes play in supporting the case for conservation
and continuing sustainable use of the wetlands of northern Bihar.
Table 1. List of plant species recorded along with
their habits.
|
|
Scientific name |
Family |
Habits |
IUCN status |
|
|
Pteridophyta |
|
|
|
|
1. |
Azolla pinnata Linn. |
Salviniaceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
2. |
Marsilea minuta Linn. |
Marsileaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
|
Dicotyledons |
|
|
|
|
3. |
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertu. |
Nymphaeaceae |
Floating |
Data deficient |
|
4. |
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. |
Nymphaeaceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
5. |
Asterocantha longifolia Nees |
Acanthaceae |
Low land |
Least Concern |
|
6. |
Boerhaavia diffusa Linn |
Nyctaginaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
7. |
Alternanthera sessilis Linn. |
Amarenthaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
8. |
Alternanthera philoxeroides
Mart. Griseb. |
Amarenthaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
9. |
Ameranthus viridis Linn. |
Amaranthaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
10. |
Polygonum glabrum Willd |
Polygonaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
11. |
Rumex dentatus Linn. |
Polygonaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
12. |
Polygonum hydropiper Linn. |
Polygonaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
13. |
Scoparia dulcis Linn. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Low land, Emergent |
Not Evaluated |
|
14. |
Heliotropium indicum Linn. |
Boraginaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
15. |
Nymphoides cristatum Roxb |
Menyanthaceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
16. |
Trapa bispinosa Roxb. |
Lythreaceae |
Floating |
Not Evaluated |
|
17. |
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk |
Asteraceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
18. |
Ageratum conyzoides Linn. |
Asteraceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
19. |
Parthenium hysterophorus Linn. |
Asteraceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
20. |
Xanthium strumarium Linn. |
Asteraceae |
Low land, Marginal |
Not Evaluated |
|
21. |
Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. |
Asteraceae |
Marginal |
Not Evaluated |
|
22. |
Malvestrum tricuspidatum
A. Gray |
Malvaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
23. |
Urena spp. |
Malvaceae |
Marginal, Submerged |
-- |
|
24. |
Aeschynomene aspara Linn. |
Papilionaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
|
Aeschynomene indica Linn. |
Papilionaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
25. |
Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC. |
Papilionaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
26. |
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. |
Convolvulaceae |
Floating, trailing herb |
Least Concern |
|
27. |
Convolvulus arvensis Linn. |
Canvolvulaceae |
Marginal, low land, trailing herb |
Not Evaluated |
|
28. |
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell |
Plantaginaceae |
Low land, Creeping herb |
Least Concern |
|
29. |
Centella Asiatic Linn. |
Apiaceae |
Low land, Creeping herb |
Least Concern |
|
30. |
Utricularia stellaris Linn. |
Lentibulariaceae |
Submerged |
Not Evaluated |
|
31. |
Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. |
Lamiaceae |
Marginal |
Not Evaluated |
|
32 |
Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell |
Onagraceae |
Marginal |
Least Concern |
|
33. |
Physalis minima Linn. |
Solanaceae |
Marginal |
Not Evaluated |
|
34. |
Phyllanthus simplex Retz. |
Euphorbiaceae |
Marginal, low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
35. |
Phyllanthus fraternus Webster. |
Euphorbiaceae |
Marginal, low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
|
Monocotyledons |
|
|
|
|
36. |
Commelina benghalensis Linn. |
Commelinaceae |
Low land |
Least Concern |
|
37. |
Commelina nudiflora Linn. |
Commelinaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
38. |
Lemna gibba Linn. |
Lemnaceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
39. |
Wolffia arrhiza Wimm. |
Lemnaceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
40. |
Pistia stratiotes Linn. |
Araceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
41. |
Colocasia esculenta Linn. |
Araceae |
Low land |
Least Concern |
|
42. |
Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn. |
Alismataceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
43. |
Scirpus articulatus Linn. |
Cyperaceae |
Low land |
Not Evaluated |
|
44. |
Eleocharis dulcis Burm. |
Cyperaceae |
Emergent |
Not Evaluated |
|
45. |
Fimbristylis tetragona Br. |
Cyperaceae |
Low land, Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
46. |
Mariscus compactus Nov. Comb. |
Cyperaceae |
Low land, Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
47. |
Pycreus pumilus, Turril |
Cyperaceae |
Low land, Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
48. |
Potamogeton crispus Linn. |
Potamogetonaceae |
Submerged |
Least Concern |
|
49. |
Hydrilla verticillata (L.F.) Royle |
Hydrocharitaceae |
Submerged |
Least Concern |
|
50. |
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers |
Hydrocharitaceae |
Submerged |
Least Concern |
|
51. |
Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms. |
Pontederiaceae |
Emergent |
Least Concern |
|
52. |
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) solms. |
Pontederiaceae |
Floating |
Not Evaluated |
|
53 |
Euryale ferox Salisb. |
Nympheaceae |
Floating |
Least Concern |
|
54. |
Acorus calamus Linn. |
Acoraceae |
Low land |
Least Concern |
|
55. |
Bacopa monnieri Linn. |
Plantaginaceae |
Low land, Creeping herb |
Least Concern |
|
56. |
Chara zeylanica Willd |
Charophyceae |
Submerged |
Not Evaluated |
|
57. |
Saccharum munja Roxb. |
Poaceae |
Marginal |
Not Evaluated |
|
58. |
Saccharum spontaneum |
Poaceae |
Marginal |
Least Concern |
|
59. |
Paspalidium spp. |
Poaceae |
Marginal |
--- |
|
60. |
Brachiaeria romosa (L.) Stapf. |
Poaceae |
Marginal |
Least Concern |
|
61. |
Cynodon dactylon, Linn. |
Poaceae |
Marginal |
Not Evaluated |
Table 2. Chemical composition of documented
macrophytes (Reid 1977; Pullin & Almazan 1983;
Becerra et al. 1995; Onwueme & Johnston 2000; Indrayan et al. 2005; Singh et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2011;
Faruk et al. 2012; Adkar et al. 2014).
|
Species |
Carbohydrate |
Protein |
Crude fat |
Crude fiber |
Moisture |
Ash |
|
Azolla (dry weight basis) |
10% |
27% |
4.6% |
11.2% |
Not available |
15 % |
|
Makhana (popped seeds) |
76.90% |
9.70% |
0.2–0.5% |
0.2–0.5% |
10-13% |
0.4% |
|
Water chestnut (wet basis) |
5.63% |
1.87% |
0.36% |
2.13% |
81% |
1.33% |
|
Taro/elephant ear (wet basis) |
13–29 % |
1.4–3 % |
0.16–0.36 |
0.6–1.18 |
63–85 % |
0.6–1.3 % |
|
Lotus (seed) |
70–72 % |
10.6–15.9 % |
1.93–2.8 % |
2.70% |
10.50% |
4–4.5 % |
Table 3. Survey prices of commercial important aquatic
macrophytes (INR/kg).
|
Macrophytes |
Seed |
Leaves/ flowers
|
Root/ tuber |
Pop |
Dry/ powder |
|
Makhana |
100–150 |
---- |
---- |
400–800 |
400–1000 |
|
Water chestnut |
15–40 |
---- |
---- |
---- |
200–300 |
|
Taro/elephant ear |
-- |
10–20 |
20–40 |
---- |
---- |
|
Lotus |
300–600 |
10–50* |
30–40 |
----- |
----- |
|
Mandukaparni |
-- |
---- |
----- |
|
80–250 |
|
Water spinach |
---- |
10–25 |
---- |
---- |
----- |
|
Sweet flag |
---- |
25–35 |
25–40 |
---- |
100–140 |
|
Brahmi |
---- |
----- |
------ |
---- |
40–150 |
|
Bhringraj |
---- |
----- |
----- |
---- |
35–150 |
|
*per flower |
|||||
Table 4. Key attributes of the ten most commercially
important aquatic macrophytes found in this survey.
|
Azolla spp. The genus Azolla
comprises floating freshwater ferns within the family Salviniaceae. These plants have triangular or polygonal
fronds, and float on the water surface either as individuals or in mats
(Figure 2a). Azolla
spreads very quickly in ideal growing conditions, forming dense vegetative
masses on areas of still water in Maun and swampy areas. The plant plays an important role in the
fixation of atmospheric CO2 and nitrogen due to its symbiotic
relationship with cynobacteria (Anabaena azollae) and rhizobium bacteria (Reddy et al.
2002). Simultaneously, it reduces
evaporation rates and serves as a water purifier due to its ability to absorb
unwanted organic nutrients and trace elements (Sood
et al. 2012). Azolla pinnata var. imbricata is
found most commonly in Asian tropical waters, and is very common in most of
the water bodies in north Bihar. The
size of individual plants ranges from 1–1.5 cm. Azolla
contains nitrogen hence, can serve as green manure or bio-fertilizer for
the paddy fields and aquafarms (Hasan & Chakrabarti 2009). It also
contains a substantial quantity of protein, fats and fibers
(Table 2), and is also a source of vitamins (A and B12), phosphorus, potash,
copper, magnesium and bioactive substances.
Widespread use of Azolla is mainly
due to its low price, and as a very abundant protein source (Reddy & deBusk 1985). Due
to its high nutritive value, it is also used as feed for fish and livestock (Sherief & James 1994). |
|
Makhana Euryale ferox Salisb., locally known as Gorgon or prickly water lily, is
also called Makhana. This species
belongs to the family Nympheaceae (Zhuang
2011). It has a wide geographic range
in north Bihar. It is an annual
hydrophyte and its habitat comprises of stagnant perennial water bodies such
as ponds, oxbow lakes, swamps and ditches (Figure 2b). The plant is used for edible and medicinal
purposes in Ayurveda (Masram et al. 2015). The seed is used for its analgesic and
aphrodisiac properties (Masram et al. 2015). It’s also taken internally in the treatment
of chronic diarrhea, vaginal discharge, kidney
weakness, nocturnal emissions, and impotence (Das et al. 2006). Raw Makhana
is a good source of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals. The calorific value of raw and popped seeds
of Makhana is 362 and 328 K cal/100g respectively
(Table 2). |
|
Water chestnut Trapa natans L. and its infraspecies
Trapa natans
var. bispinosa (Roxb.)
Makino. is an aquatic free-floating plant with submerged and
floating leaves arranged in a rosette manner (Figure 2c). It belongs to the family Trapacae. The habitat of water chestnut requires sunny
conditions and a muddy, nutrient rich,
freshwater and soft substrate of ponds, marshes and lakes. Water chestnut is commonly known as Singhara/Singhada in India. The fruit of water chestnut has nutritional and
medicinal values. The approximate
composition of the water chestnut kernel is given by Singh et al. 2010 and Adkar et al. 2014 (see Table 2). The immature pulp of the fruit, called
milky water chestnut, is eaten raw or cooked. It is also used for preparing
tea in Japan, commercial production of wine, and festival food. The fruits have been used as agents of
anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhea, intestinal
astringent, antileprotic and urinary discharges (Alfasane
et al. 2011; Chandana et al. 2013). |
|
Taro/elephant ear The common name of Colocasia
esculenta (L.) Schott. is Taro/elephant ear. It is a lowland
aquatic macrophyte belonging to the family Araceae. It is a tropical and subtropical perennial
plant with large, heart shape leaves (Figure 2d). The habitat of elephant ear is mostly
moisture-rich areas or littoral zone of aquatic marshes, ponds and wetlands
in northern Bihar. It has both roots
and leaves which are edible (Opara 2001). Members of the genus are also cultivated as
ornamental plants. Taro has high importance in ensuring food and
livelihood security as it is also a cash crop (Revill
et al. 2005; Palapala et al. 2009). Fresh taro is an excellent source of
carbohydrate/starch with low amounts of fat and protein (Onwueme
& Johnston 2000) (see Table 2).
Other nutrients such as minerals, Vitamin C, Thiamin,
Riboflavin and Niacin are also present (Temesgen
& Ratta 2015).
Taro leaves are used as antidiabetic, antihypertensive, immunoprotective, and anticarcenogenic
agents (Gupta et al. 2019), possibly due to being an excellent source of
carotene, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, iron, riboflavin, thiamine,
niacin, Vitamin A, Vitamin C and dietary fibre (Opara
2001). Curry preparation with leaves
and stalks are given to women after childbirth to act as a treatment for anemia (Sarmah et al. 2013). |
|
Indian lotus The Indian lotus, Nelumbo
nucifera Gaertn., is the national flower of
India belonging to the family Nelumbonaceae. The habitat includes shallow and muddy
ponds, wetlands and lakes that are exposed to direct sunlight (Figure
2e). The cultivation of lotus can be
traced back more than 3,000 years ago for food, medicine, and cultural and
religious activities (Shen-Miller 2002; Mandal & Bar 2013). Lotus rhizomes, stems and leaves are edible (Sridhar
& Bhat 2007). Lotus rhizomes comprise 1.7% protein, 0.10% fat, 9.7%
carbohydrates, and 1.1% ash (Reid 1977), and stems contain 6, 2.4 and 0.2
mg/100 g of calcium, iron and zinc respectively (Ogle et al. 2001). The seeds of lotus consist of several
nutritional properties (see Table 2). Even the petals are used in soups and
as a garnish. The rhizome extract has
anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory properties (Mukherjee et al. 1997). The leaves are used effectively for
hematemesis, epistaxis and hemoptysis (Ou 1889). The
fruits and seeds are used for dermatopathy, halitosis, menorrhagia, and
leprosy (Nadkarni 1982). |
|
Mandukaparni Mandukaparni is a common name for Centella asiatic
Linn., belonging within the family Apiaceae (Gohil
et al. 2010). Mandukaparni grows in moist places and swampy areas of
wetlands, particularly at the marginal areas of swamp and earth embankments
(Figure 2f) (Khobragade & Khobragade
2016). Mandukaparni contains triterpene acids,
flavonoids (Phondke 1992; Jamil et al. 2007),
volatiles and fatty oil, alkaloids, glycosides (Chopra et al. 1956), and has
also been reported to contain amino acids, minerals (Malhotra et al. 1961),
oligosaccharides centellose, carotenoids, Vitamin-B,
Vitamin-C (Phondke 1992), and tannins (Kapoor
2005). The species is widely used in Ayurvedic
formulations, in Chinese medicine, and in homeopathic medicines. It is used to provide relief from insomnia,
epilepsy, skin diseases, fever, high blood pressure, as a memory enhancer,
and nervine tonic (Gupta & Sharma 2007).
In homeopathic medicine, it is used for skin-related diseases such as
itching and swelling, eczema, uterus-related ulceration and inflammation, granular
cervicitis, elephantiasis and ascariasis (Singh & Rastogi 1969). |
|
Water spinach Ipomoea aquatic Forssk., commonly known as water spinach, belongs to the
family Convolvulaceae. It is a semi-aquatic plant, with long
hollow stems possessing a large number of air passages. Its leaves are elliptic or oval-oblong and
cordate. The species is mostly
associated with moist soil/mud along the margins of stagnant water bodies
such as wetlands, marshes, lakes, ponds, rivers, and canals (Patnaik 1976). Water spinach is nutritionally rich and found
to contain nutrients such as α-tocopherol (Candlish
1983); Vitamin-C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
proteins, fats, carbohydrates, fiber, organic acid,
ash and minerals (Wills et al. 1984); glycolipids, phospholipids and fatty
acids (Rao et al. 1990); and α and β carotenes (Ogle et al. 2001). In Indian traditional medicine, the extract
of the leaves is used to alleviate disorders such as jaundice and nervous
weakness (Prasad et al. 2008); nosebleed and high blood pressure (Duke & Ayensu 1985); and It also provides relief from eye
diseases (Jain & Verma 1981) and constipation
(Samuelsson et al. 1992). The plant
also possesses anti-nematodal (Mackeen
et al. 1997) and antioxidant properties (Prasad et al. 2005). |
|
Sweet flag Sweet flag or bach is a
common name for Acorus calamus
Linn. It belongs to the family Acoraceae. It is a
semi-aquatic, perennial monocotelydonous plant
naturally found in wetlands (Tiwari et al. 2012) (Figure 2g). It is mainly used for its oil due to the
high occurrence of fatty acids and essential oils including acrenone, isocalamendiol (Balakumbahan et al. 2010), monoterpene hydrocarbon, sequestirine ketones, asarone,
and eugenol. Sweet flag has been used
for the treatment of fever, asthma, bronchitis, swelling, cough, poor
digestive function, epilepsy and insanity (Balakumbahan
et al. 2010). Its roots and leaves
also exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, and insecticidal properties (Asha et
al. 2009; Balakumbahan et al. 2010). |
|
Brahmi Brahmi is the common name of Bacopa monnieri Linn. Brahmi is a perennial creeping herb
belonging to the family Plantaginaceae. It grows in marshy wetlands (Figure
2h). The plant contains Bacoside-A and
B, both nootropic major chemical entities (Chatterji
et al. 1965; Devendra et al. 2018). It
also contains alkaloids such as brahmine, nicotinine, herpestine,
triterpenoid, saponins A, B and C, betulinic acid,
D-mannitol, stigmastanol, β-sitosterol,
stigmasterol and pseudojujubogenin glycoside
(Chopra et al. 1956; Bammidi et al. 2011). Brahmi has been used to treat various nervous
system-related disorders such as a brain tonic to enhance memory development,
learning, motivation, and concentration, and to provide relief to patients
with anxiety. It is also used in
digestive complains, for skin disorders, and as an antiepileptic,
antipyretic, and analgesic agent (Mukherjee & Day 1966; Bammidi et al. 2011), however, its use has some clinical
side effects such as mild gastrointestinal upset, nausea and intestinal
motility (Aguiar & Borowski 2013). |
|
Bhringraj Bhringraj or Eclipta alba
Hassk. belongs to the family Asteraceae. Its habitat is along the edges of pools,
tanks, ditches, littoral zone of wetlands and rice fields. It contains active coumestans
such as wedelolactone and desmethylwedelolactone
(Wagner et al. 1986; Jaglan et al. 2013), and
furanocoumarins, oleanane and taraxastane
glycosides (Singh et al. 2010). The
plant is commonly used in hair oil for healthy black and long hair (Roy et
al. 2008), and is also popular for enhancing memory and learning abilities (Banji et al. 2007). It is used as a tonic and diuretic in
hepatic and spleen enlargement conditions. It is also used in catarrhal
jaundice, for skin and gall bladder diseases (Treadway 1998). |
For
figure & image - - click here
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