Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 June 2021 | 13(7): 18868–18877
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5603.13.7.18868-18877
#5603 | Received 07 December 2019 | Final
received 01 September 2020 | Finally accepted 31 May 2021
Population assessment and habitat
distribution modelling of the threatened medicinal plant Picrorhiza kurroa Royle
ex Benth. in the Kumaun Himalaya, India
Naveen Chandra 1,
Gajendra Singh 2, Shashank Lingwal 3, M.P.S. Bisht
4 & Lalit Mohan Tewari 5
1–4 Uttarakhand Space Application
Centre, Upper Aamwala, Nalapani, Uttarakhand 248008, India.
5 Department of Botany, D.S.B
Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand 263001, India.
1 bhattnaveen857@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2
gajendrawat@yahoo.com, 3 shashank.lingwal@yahoo.in, 4 mpbisht@gmail.com,
5 l_tewari@rediffmail.com
Editor: Anonymity
requested. Date of publication:
26 June 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Chandra,
N., G. Singh, S. Lingwal, M.P.S. Bisht & L.M. Tiwari (2021). Population
assessment and habitat distribution modelling of the threatened medicinal plant
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. in the Kumaun Himalaya, India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 13(7): 18868–18877. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5603.13.7.18868-18877
Copyright: © Chandra et al. 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This research work was supported
by the funding received from GB Pant National Institute of Himalayan
Environment and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD) under the National Mission
on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) program (NMHS/SG-2016/009) Ministry of Forests and
Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing
interests.
Author details: Mr. Naveen Chandra is PhD scholar. His research
interest focuses on plant ecology, taxonomy and geospatial monitoring of
threatened plants. Dr. Gajendra Singh
is a Scientist in Uttrakhand Space Application Centre (USAC) at Forestry and
Climate change division. His research interest include plant taxonomy, forest
ecology, spatial environment monitoring, natural resource management and
biodiversity conservation. Mr. Shashank
Lingwal is Scientist in USAC. He is working on the areas of geospatial
modelling, computer graphics and application. Prof.
M.P.S. Bisht is Director of USAC. His research interest include
environment geology and natural resource management. Prof. L.M. Tewari is professor in department of botany, KU,
Nainital. Medicinal plants, plant
taxonomy, ethnobotany, vegetation ecology and biodivesity conservation are his
major research interest.
Author contributions: NC contributed for site
selection, field survey, data collection, analysis and finalization of the
manuscript. GS has help in the field work, data evaluation, continuous review
and finalization of manuscript. SL has participated in field work and
compilation of data. MPS has constantly guided the work and provide all the
necessary technical support and
preparation of manuscript. LM assisted in the field work and analysis of
data.
Acknowledgements: We thank the director, Uttarakhand
Space Application Centre (USAC), Dehradun for providing the required
facilities. Thanks, is also due to the
chairman and member secretary, Uttarakhand State Biodiversity Board (UKSBB),
Dehradun for guidance and support. The
financial support from the GB Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment
and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD) under the National Mission on Himalayan
Studies (NMHS) program (NMHS/SG-2016/009) of Ministry of Forests and Climate
Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India is duly acknowledged.
Abstract: Kumaun Himalaya is a home to
various threatened medicinal and aromatic plants. Picrorhiza kurroa is a threatened
medicinal plant useful in curing many diseases in Indian Himalayan region. Due to overharvesting from the wild its
population is decreasing at an alarming rate.
The present study attempted to assess its availability and predict
highly suitable areas for in situ conservation in the alpine region of
Kumaun. Availability of P. kurroa
across various meadows was evaluated through rapid mapping exercise. MaxEnt model was used to predict the
geographical distribution of the species using various environmental and
physiographic parameters, and 29 primary distribution points. The results reveal that potential habitat of P.
kurroa is located near forest fringes.
Of the 3,828km2 area (vegetated) of the alpine region of
Kumaun, about 202km2 is recorded highly suitable, 489km2
less suitable and the rest not suitable for the species. It is also revealed that Napalchu nala,
Panchachuli base, Chhipla Kedar, Rongkong, Ralam, Milam, Dwali, and Pindari
areas are highly suitable areas for distribution of P. kurroa.
Keywords: Distribution, Kumaun Himalaya,
medicinal plant, population.
Introduction
Picrorhiza kurroa (Scrophulariaceae; vernacular
name Kutki) (Image 1) is a perennial herb confined to alpine region of the
Himalaya. The species is native to
India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Tibet, and Pakistan. In India, P. kurroa is naturally
distributed from Kashmir to Sikkim in the subalpine to alpine region between
3,000–5,300 m (Chettri et al. 2005). It
prefers rocky crevices and grows on moist, rocky slopes in organic rich
soil. It is used either as an adulterant
or as a substitute for the Indian Gentian Gentiana kurroo. Odour of the
stem is slight and unpleasant, taste is very bitter and long lasting, and it
has a high demand in the herbal market (Dutt 1928; Ved & Goraya 2008). A drug named picroliv (iridoid glycoside
fraction of roots and rhizomes) containing at least 60% of 1:1.5 mixture of
picroside-I and kutkoside) has been developed for the treatment of acute and
chronic hepatitis, and healthy carriers (Dhawan 1993). In addition, it is used in liver and stomach
medicines and prescribed for treatment of respiratory and allergic diseases
(Sarin 2008). Consequently, P. kurroa
is among the top 15 traded plant species in India in terms of economic value
(Ved & Goraya 2008).
In recent times exploitation of P.
kurroa has become a flourishing business for illegal collectors. Uncontrolled exploitation, along with other
factors including habitat destruction, overgrazing and increasing tourism
activities in habitats, are responsible for the dwindling of wild populations,
which provide over 90% of the market demand of P. kurroa. Obtaining 1kg of dry weight P. kurroa
requires uprooting 300 to 400 individual plants (Uniyal et al. 2009). Indiscriminate, unscientific harvesting and
lack of organized cultivation of the plant has threatened its status in the
wild, and it is listed as an endangered species by IUCN (Nayar & Shastri
1990). The conservation assessment and
management prioritization (CAMP 2003) workshop on medicinal plants of
northwestern Himalayan states held in Shimla also declared P. kurroa as
endangered in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, while its status in
Uttarakhand was declared as critically endangered. In the recent past, the consumption of P.
kurroa in different sectors in India was estimated at 415 metric ton/year
(Ved & Goraya 2008). In 1980, 1.47
metric tons of P. kurroa were extracted from Himachal Pradesh, and this
figure was 10 times higher in 1990 (Sharma 1995). A similar pattern was reported from the Gori
Valley, Uttarakhand, where about 5 metric tons of P. kurroa was
extracted by 12 villages in 2001 (Virdi 2004)
The species is being collected
from almost all the alpine meadows of the state for personal and commercial
use; however, information concerning species distribution and availability
across meadows is limited. Identification
of suitable habitats for the reintroduction of species is the next logical step
in conservation efforts. Thus the
present study was designed to address i) the status of P. kurroa natural
populations and ii) the distribution of this species in the Kumaun Himalaya.
Material
and methods
Study area
This study was undertaken in the
alpine region of the Kumaun Himalaya, part of the central Indian Himalayan
region (IHR), a major habitat of glacial and non-glacial herbs above
3,000m. The area lies between
29.716–30.816N latitude and 79.716–81.083E longitude, and forms an interior
most region. It is bounded by Chamoli
district on the west, Tibet on the north, Nepal on the east, and Almora on the
south. The total area covered between
3,000 to 5,300 m altitude is 4,617km2. For the present study about 30 alpine meadows
were surveyed. Major vegetation, road,
village, altitude, and sample points are illustrated in Figure 1. These sites are under heavy snow cover for
4 to 6 months during winter, and maximum daytime air temperature reaches 25°C
during the summer, followed by nearly freezing temperatures at night. Six major vegetation formations occur in the
alpine region of Uttarakhand: tall forbs, short forbs or mixed herbaceous
formations, matted shrubs/shrubberies, Danthonia grasslands, Kobresia sedge
meadow, and cushioned vegetation (Rawat 2005).
The maximum area is represented by Danthonia grassland (252.3km2),
followed by herbaceous meadows (159.3km2) (Padalia et al. 2018).
The region has nearly 40 small and large glaciers and many high-altitude
lakes. Pindari, Gori, Kali, Dhauli, and
Ramganga are rivers of glacial origin of this region, which harbours flora that
are quite different from the flora of other areas.
Methods
Fieldwork in the alpine region is
conducted from June to September, when most of the area is snow-free and plant
blooming allows for easy identification.
Intensive field surveys were conducted in 30 alpine meadows during
2016–19. Representative populations were
found in 15 meadows, and where sizes were estimated using the rapid mapping
exercise (RME) technique. Transects 500m
long having 10 plots (5m circle) at every 50m interval were laid to assess major
habitat types. Within each 5m circular
plot, four quadrats of 1×1 m in north, east, west, and south (NEWS) directions
were laid to assess the population of P. kurroa (Figure 2). About 30 to 40 plots were laid in each site
where P. kurroa has been recorded.
Occurrence data and environmental
variables
About (29) well distributed
primary and secondary occurrence records of Picrorhiza kurroa were
collected through field surveys and literature surveys (viz., herbarium
survey of Forest Research Institute (DD) Dehradun, Botanical Survey of India (BSD),
Kumaun University Nainital (KU), Wildlife Institute of India (WII), and
Regional Ayurvedic Research Institute (RARI) Thapla, Ranikhet), and from
published literature.
The environmental variables used in
this study were 25 predictors, 19 of them (bio layers) downloaded from the
WorldClim v1.4 dataset at resolution of 2.5 arc-minutes (http://www.
worldclim.org/bioclim). To find out the
habitat suitability of the species, we used variables that included digital
elevation model (DEM), slope, aspect, Euclidean distance from drainage, forest
type and degradation (camping site), along with bioclimatic variables. Layers
were rescaled at 1km spatial resolution (30 arc-second).
Species distribution modelling
We used a maximum entropy model
(MaxEnt version 3.3.3; Phillips et al. 2006) and pixel dimension of 250×250 m
grid cell, as it performs better with small sample sizes relative to other
methods (Elith et al. 2006; Pearson et al. 2007). MaxEnt (Phillips et al. 2006) uses presence
only data to predict the distribution of a species based on the theory of
maximum entropy. The program attempts to
estimate a probability distribution of species occurrence that is closest to uniform
while still subject to environmental constraints (Elith et al. 2011). The maximum number of background points was
10,000. Linear or quadratic or product,
categorical threshold and hinge features were used with the values 0.050,
0.250, 1.000, and 0.500, respectively.
To reduce model overfitting and over-prediction, regularization
multiplier value was set to 0.1 (Phillips et al. 2004) with 5,000 iterations
and the rest of the values were kept as default (Yang et al. 2013). We selected 75% data for model training and
25% for model testing, keeping other values as default. Jackknife analyses were performed to
determine variables that reduce the model reliability when omitted. Area under the receiving operator curve (AUC)
were used to evaluate model performance, where AUC value ranges between 0 and
1, of which 1 indicates the ideal model (i.e., AUC value near to 1 indicate
good predictive power of model). The
model with the highest AUC value was considered the best performer (Swets
1988). To validate the model robustness,
we executed 20 replicated model runs for the species with a threshold rule of
10 percentile training presence. In the
replicated runs, we employed a cross-validation technique where samples were
divided into replicate folds and each fold was used for test data. Other parameters were set to default as the
program is already calibrated on a wide range of species datasets (Phillips
& Dudík 2008).
Result
and Discussion
Distribution of P. kurroa
Among 30 surveyed meadows of the
Kumaun region, about 25 showed presence of Picrorhiza kurroa and 15
meadows had representative population sizes.
Of the 15 populations assessed, seven were present in grassy slopes,
five in Rhododendron forest margins, two in Juniperus mixed
forest, and one in Betula-Taxus forest.
Maximum populations were found in the northwestern aspect (6), followed
by south-east (5) and south-west (4) between 3,000-–3,900 m (Table 1).
Population structure and habitat
preference of P. kurroa
In general, Picrorhiza kurroa mostly
prefers matted/mixed shrub, herbaceous meadows and Danthonia grassy
slope habitats. Population status across
different meadows ranged 0.6–3.8 individuals/m2 (Table 2). Of the 15
representative meadows, 13 had more than 1.0 individuals/m2. The low density and frequency across the
meadows showed low availability of this species. During the present investigation, P.
kurroa was distributed in Laspa,
Gunji, Bilju, Martoli, Ganghar, Milam, Kutti, Ralam, Johar, Panchachuli, &
Napalchunala in Pithoragarh District and Devikund, Sunderdunga, Dwali, Phurkia,
& Pindari in Bageshwar District.
Phytosociological analysis revealed that P. kurroa grows
gregariously in moist, rocky slopes as well as in organic rich soil. Past studies reported that moist rocky slopes
and under scrub habitats of >3,600m altitudes showed highest density (Uniyal
et al. 2002; Semwal et al. 2007). The
maximum density was 3.8 individuals/m2 in Panchachuli and 3.2
individuals/m2 in Laspa, while minimum density was observed in
Phurkia and Johar (0.64 individuals/m2) areas. Low frequency and density shows that this
species is rare and adapted to specific microhabitats.
Some habitat-based studies assert
that P. kurroa has restricted and localized distribution in its native
range. In alpine region of Gori Valley,
its mean density was reported 3.89 individuals/m2 having highest in
moist rocky slopes (12.92 individuals/m2) and least in grassy slopes
(0.085 individuals/m2). It is
completely absent in the undulating and marsh meadows (Uniyal et al 2002). Degree of constancy (measure of omnipresence
of a species in a given community) for P. kurroa was measured as ‘often’
in three sites ‘mostly’ in two sides and
‘seldom’ in 10 pockets having poor occurrence.
Habitat suitability
Habitat variables including
slope, aspect, temperature, precipitation, drainage, altitude, and forest type
were used along with bioclimatic variables to predict suitable sites for P.
kurroa. Of the total geographical
area of the Kumaun Himalaya, MaxEnt predicted 202km2 as highly
suitable and about 489km2 as less suitable, and the rest not
suitable (Figure 3). The threshold value training (0.91) and test (0.86) was
close to 1, thereby showing the high accuracy of the model (Figure 4).
The observed and predicted P.
kurroa sites were mostly in forest fringes (42%) followed by grassy (30%)
and rocky slopes (23%), with slopes between 150 and 300
in south-west and north-west aspects being highly preferred. Among the various environmental variables
used for the prediction of distribution, mean diurnal range (Bio2 59.3%) and precipitation of driest quarter
(bio17 10.9%) showed the maximum contribution, followed by aspect, forest and
annual precipitation (bio12), which contributed 10.7%, 8.3%, and 4.4%,
respectively. The Jackknife test showed
that Bio2 (mean temperature of driest quarter) and bio17 (precipitation of
driest quarter (bio 17) were the two most important predictors of P. kurroa
when used independently (Figure 5).
Variables response to habitat
suitability
Response curves show the quantitative
relationship between environmental variables and the logistic probability of
presence (also known as habitat suitability), and they deepen the understanding
of the ecological niche of the species.
The responses of 10 variables to the habitat suitability of P. kurroa
are illustrated in Figure 6. According
to the response curves, the suitable elevation range is 2,700–4,000m, which
records that P. kurroa mainly grows at altitudes within this range on
grassy slopes and Rhodododendron campanulatum scrub margins. Altitude usually is a key eco-factor for
local plant distribution. The slopes of
all sample points were lower than 380, with P. kurroa
preferring 30–380 slope. The
probability of presence was close to zero when altitude, slope, mean diurnal
range (bio 2), precipitation of wettest quarter (bio 16), precipitation of
driest quarter (bio 17) and mean temperature of driest quarter (bio 9) were
less than 2,400m, 150, 170c, 320mm, 53mm, and -150c,
respectively. According to the
suitability grade, the suitable distribution area (probability 0.8) for P.
kurroa requires mean diurnal range,
precipitation of wettest quarter,
precipitation of driest quarter, mean temperature of driest quarter to
be 6–7 0C, 850–900 mm, 132–138 mm, and 30–38 0C, respectively. It was also found that forest fringe, moist
rocks and Danthonia grassy slopes were the prefered habitats for P.
kurroa.
Discussion
In the Indian Himalayan region, a
large number of studies have been carried out on ecology, systematics, and inventorisation
of phytodiversity (Dhar et al. 1997; Samant et al. 2002; Joshi & Samant
2004); however, a few studies are available on population ecology and
ecological niche modelling (ENM) (Ray et al. 2011; Adhikari et al. 2012; Barik
& Adhikari 2012; Yang et al. 2013; Samant & Lal 2015) in the
region. Of the total vegetated area
(3,828km2) between 3,000–5,300 m, 202km2 are highly
suitable for P. kurroa. Habitats
most suitable to this species are in the northwestern part of the Kumaun
region, endowed with high rainfall during the rainy season. Habitat
modelling illustrated that Napalchunala, Panchachuli base, Chhipla Kedar,
Rongkong, Ralam, Milam, Dwali, and Pindari have prime habitats for P. kurroa. These areas would act as an in situ
conservation area for the species and could be used for natural assisted
regeneration sites. Field based surveys
reveal that P. kurroa have more suitable habitats near the treeline of
Himalayan Birch Betula utilis forests, Rhododendron campanulatum,
and Danthonia grassy slopes. The
species was mostly present in shrub canopy (40%) followed by Danthonia grassy
slopes (35%) and rocky slopes (25%). The
species was more frequent in areas having >20° slopes and south-west and
north-west. Superimposing the predicted
map on high-resolution satellite images (LISS-IV and Cartosat-2 merge product)
revealed that mosaic of habitats are more suitable for this species.
The abundance of the P. kurroa
across the meadows is low. Only four
meadows, viz., Panchachuli, Laspa, Bilju, and Martoli had a density over 2.0
individuals/m2. Overall, the
highest density was recorded on moist Danthonia grassy slopes. Low population density may be due to
overexploitation for medicinal purposes, poor regeneration, low seed
germination, habitat loss, and anthropogenic pressure. The maximum numbers of populations (7) were
represented by grassy slopes habitat indicating that such habitats form the
best platform for the overall development of the species. The high density of species in grassy slopes
and Rhododendron forest margin habitats indicated that such habitat is
suitable for the germination of seeds and development of seedlings.
It is also observed that
population of P. kurroa was
low in sites close to shepherds’ camps and high in areas where collection was
negligible. Threat assessment indicates
this species is being diminished day by day.
Owing to various anthropogenic activities and their intensity, the species
is locally common hence designated as locally common heavy pressure (LCHP). Among the habitat suitability classes, three
classes, i.e., high, moderate and less suitability classes can be considered
for the reintroduction (conservation) of the species. The model output result predicted that
ecological niche coincides with the literature and field geographical
distribution. Better population status
of the species in areas of higher model thresholds such as Panchachuli, Laspa,
Bilju, and Martoli revealed that these areas have suitable conditions for the
persistence of species. For the in situ
and ex situ conservation, mass multiplication of species through seeds and
awareness and active participation of local people, community-based
organizations, non-government organizations, and forest department are
essentially required.
Conclusion
The study provides comprehensive
information on population and habitat distribution of P. kurroa. Meagre information exists on the ecology,
distribution, and population status of P. kurroa in the wild, and its
populations and habitats are diminishing at alarming rate. P. kurroa has been listed among top 20
species prioritized for conservation and development keeping in view the status
in the wild, sensitivity to anthropogenic impacts and its increasing demand in
the market. Of the total vegetated area
above 3,000m in the Kumaun, only 5.27% is highly suitable for the species;
however, another 12.8% (489km2) is less suitable, which includes
meadows with excessive anthropogenic pressure and degradation. The observations on population, habitat
distribution and threat status of P.
kurroa illustrate that although suitable habitats were present in
different locations, this species is restricted to very few sites with
comparatively low population. Highly
suitable sites less are accessible due to excessive livestock grazing and
trampling and uprooting plants for medicinal purpose or marketing by local
inhabitants. If immediate steps for
management and regulation in collection are not taken, this species will be
extinct from many localities in the near future.
Although P. kurroa is
categorised as critically endangered, there is no management plan for
conservation due to lack of related information and exploitation of species
continues from the wild through unscientific manner. In nature, the species preferred moist, rocky
slopes, and organic rich soil for rich populations. Therefore, for the domestication of the
species, moist sites preferably north-west facing slopes would be more
appropriate. Besides this, long term
monitoring of P. kurroa is needed having specific conservation plots in
the wild across meadows. Similarly,
areas already reported to be rich in population of P. kurroa should be
marked as control sites for future monitoring and repeated sampling. The strengthening of medicinal plant conservations
areas established in the region would
not only conserve and multiply medicinal and aromatic plants, but also will
protect soil erosion and original habitats of the plants.
Table 1. Site characteristics of
the selected populations of P. kurroa.
Sites |
Lattitude |
Longitude |
Altitude (m) |
Slope (0) |
Aspect |
Habitat |
Kuti |
30.298636 |
80.751549 |
3000–3600 |
25–30 |
SE |
Grassy slopes |
Ralam |
30.302094 |
80.263975 |
3200–3700 |
30–34 |
NW |
Rhododendron forest margin |
Milam |
30.428777 |
80.167999 |
3000–3300 |
30–35 |
SW |
Grassy slopes |
Martoli |
30.355871 |
80.213086 |
3400–3600 |
30–35 |
SE |
Grassy slopes |
Burfa |
30.374958 |
80.189717 |
3100–3400 |
25–35 |
SE |
Grassy slopes |
Gunji |
30.185613 |
80.863236 |
3200–3800 |
20–30 |
NW |
Betula-Taxus forest |
Panchachuli |
30.218561 |
80.504378 |
3100–3300 |
30–38 |
SE |
Grassy slopes |
Napalchu Nala |
30.175536 |
80.839672 |
3000–3200 |
30–40 |
NW |
Grassy slopes |
Laspa |
30.291611 |
80.202882 |
3100–3200 |
25–40 |
SW |
Rhododendron forest margin |
Bilju |
30.403455 |
80.173656 |
3150–3360 |
25–30 |
SW |
Juniperus mixed forest |
Dwali |
30.180867 |
80.007178 |
3000–3150 |
25–35 |
SW |
Juniperus mixed forest |
Phurkia |
30.214633 |
80.001388 |
3100–3200 |
25–30 |
NW |
Rhododendron forest margin |
Pindari |
30.248124 |
80.000129 |
3200–3400 |
30–40 |
SE |
Grassy slopes |
Sunderdunga |
30.191111 |
79.911033 |
3200–3800 |
25–30 |
NW |
Rhododendron forest margin |
Devikund |
30.193395 |
79.890615 |
3900–4400 |
30–40 |
NW |
Rhododendron forest margin |
Table 2. Phytosociological
attributes of P. kurroa in different location.
|
Location |
Density (individuals/m2) |
Frequency (%) |
Abundance |
A/F ratio |
Degree of constancy |
1. |
Kutti |
1.3 |
60 |
7.1 |
0.11 |
seldom |
2. |
Ralam |
1.5 |
50 |
3.0 |
0.06 |
seldom |
3. |
Milam |
0.6 |
40 |
1.5 |
0.03 |
seldom |
4. |
Martoli |
2.4 |
50 |
4.8 |
0.09 |
often |
5. |
Burfa |
1.8 |
30 |
6 |
0.2 |
often |
6. |
Gunji |
1.8 |
60 |
3.0 |
0.05 |
seldom |
7. |
Panchachuli |
3.8 |
50 |
7.6 |
0.15 |
mostly |
8. |
Napalchu Nala |
1.2 |
50 |
2.4 |
0.04 |
mostly |
9. |
Laspa |
3.2 |
40 |
9.7 |
0.24 |
often |
10. |
Bilju |
2.4 |
60 |
4.0 |
0.06 |
seldom |
11. |
Dwali |
1.4 |
60 |
2.3 |
0.03 |
seldom |
12. |
Phurkia |
0.6 |
30 |
2.0 |
0.06 |
seldom |
13. |
Pindari |
1.9 |
40 |
2.5 |
0.06 |
seldom |
14. |
Sunderdunga |
1.8 |
50 |
3.6 |
0.07 |
seldom |
15 |
Devikund |
1.6 |
50 |
3.2 |
0.06 |
seldom |
For figures & image - - click here
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