Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2021 | 13(8): 18986–18992
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5271.13.8.18986-18992
#5271 | Received 25 July 2019 | Final
received 21 May 2021 | Finally accepted 15 June 2021
Study on the impacts of LULC
change on the wildlife habitat and the livelihood of people in and around Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mizoram, India
Sushanto Gouda
1, Janmejay Sethy
2, Netrapal Singh Chauhan 3 & Harendra Singh Bargali
4
1–3 Amity Institute of
Forestry and Wildlife, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201313, India.
4 The Corbett Foundation, Village
& P.O. Dhikuli, Ramnagar,
Uttarakhand 244715, India.
1 sushantogouda@gmail.com, 2 jsethy@amity.edu (corresponding author), 3 nschauhan@amity.edu,
4 hsbargali@gmali.com
Editor: Nishith Dharaiya,
HNG University, Patan, India. Date
of publication: 26 July 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Gouda, S., J. Sethy, N.S. Chauhan & H.S. Bargali
(2021). Study on the impacts of LULC
change on the wildlife habitat and the livelihood of people in and around Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mizoram, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(8): 18986–18992. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5271.13.8.18986-18992
Copyright: © Gouda et al. 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This study was
funded by Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hongkong.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Sushanto Gouda—research scholar in Amity Institute of Forestry and
Wildlife, Amity University. His interest in animal biotechnology and ecology. Janmejay Sethy—currently
working as Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Forestry and Wildlife, Amity
University. His interest in animal ecology and conservation biology. And also
interest in bear ecology and endangered species management. Netrapal Singh Chauhan—currently working as Professor and Director,
Amity Institute of Forestry and Wildlife, Amity University. His interest in
human-wildlife interactions and population management. Harendra Singh Bargali—currently
working as Deputy Director in Corbett Foundation. His interest in bear ecology,
human-wildlife conflict and conservation biology.
Author contributions: JS and SG have designed and
wrote the manuscript. JS and S Gouda have analysed,
interpreted and edited the manuscript. NPSC and HSB have compiled and edited
the research article. All the authors have read and approved the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the
Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hong Kong for providing necessary funds for
the work. The authors are also thankful to the forest department of Mizoram and
village headmen for their support and cooperation.
Abstract: Anthropogenic activities are a
matter of serious concern in the Indian Himalayan region due to adverse impacts
on wildlife and habitats. This study examines resource use patterns by local
people in relation to the habitat of Malayan Sun Bear in and around Dampa Tiger Reserve in Mizoram. Standard questionnaire
surveys and vegetation sampling methods were used for data collection and
analysis. It was found that 221.3 km2 (33.3%) of the forested areas have high
human interference in the form of logging, indiscriminate tree falling and fuel
wood collection, while 26% was moderately affected and 18% of the reserve had
no impact. Among vegetation resources, fuel wood was used in the highest
quantity (28%) followed by bamboo and edible plants (21%) and (11%),
respectively. Ethno-zoological usage comprises of parts of animals like snake,
bear, monitor lizard, and porcupine. Sun bears were considered pests that feed
on maize, cucumber, sweet potato and pumpkins grown in ‘jhum’ crop fields.
Anthropogenic pressures from farm-bush hunting, monoculture, and unplanned
roads have contributed to severe biodiversity loss, and must be constrained for
the conservation of sun bear and their habitat
in the region. The Land Use/ Land Cover on human built-up,
jhum land (current and abandoned jhum/shifting cultivation), forests (dense and
open), bamboo forest, plantation etc. were used to develop maps for each village.
The land use pattern for the eight villages studied. Information obtained from
MIRSAC and its mapping in Arcview shows that highest
number of agricultural land was in villages of West Phaileng
(319sq.ha) and Damparengpui (283.8sq.ha). Closed or
dense forest was in highest proportion in Phuldungsei
and least in Tuipuibari (120sq.ha). Grazing
activities was relatively low or absent in most part of DTR. Abandoned jhum
fields were in largest number in Damparengpui
(939.60sq.ha) followed by Silsuri (881.17sq.ha) and Serhmun (880.99sq.ha).
Keyword: Bear-Human interactions, conservation,
foraging, habitat fragmentation, human interference, Malayan Sun Bear,
monoculture.
Introduction
Forest and wildlife are integral
components of a dynamic ecosystem. The recent exponential growth in human
populations and encroachment towards protected areas (PAs) have led wildlife
populations and their habitats to declined so drastically this has been
referred to as an “ongoing sixth mass extinction” by Barrueto
et al. (2014) and Ceballos et al. (2017). The depletion of wildlife species has
been intimately linked to the food demands and livelihood dependency of
forest-dwellers in tropical rainforest regions of the world (Nasi et al. 2008),
who rely on forests for timber, firewood, and other non-timber forest products
(NTFPs) such as fodder, medicine, food, and raw materials for making
handicrafts and construction of houses (Sahoo et al. 2010). As human
populations continue to expand, so does pressure on protected lands (Jones et
al. 2018; Broekhuis et al. 2019).
Human-induced chronic changes or
anthropogenic pressures in the form of forest fires, habitat fragmentation or
destruction, and changes in land use patterns, are common around PA’s in India.
In the Himalayan region, deforestation and forest degradation are major
concerns for floral and faunal diversity (Dhyani et
al. 2013; Mohanta & Chauhan 2014). Changes in
land use patterns and increases in agricultural areas have greatly affected the
habitat, food selection pattern and conservation of sun bear in the northeastern states of India, including Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Nagaland, and Mizoram (Chauhan & Lalthunpuia
2008; Sethy & Chauhan 2013). Anthropogenic activities
often harm wild animals directly through agriculture, human settlement,
transportation, and indirectly by disturbing the ecological balance,
cross-species transmission of pathogens, pollution, and climate change (MacRae 2011; Becker et al. 2015). Many of these activities
have received little attention, resulting in an alteration of habitat use,
foraging behavior of animals and severe
human-wildlife negative interactions (Sih et al.
2011; Becker et al. 2018). Bears being large omnivores have a continuous
interspecies competition with humans for space and food in several niches of an
ecosystem (Ladle et al. 2018; Sethy & Chauhan
2018). At the population level, bears appear to be less selective in their
habitat choice; however, during sedentary and stop-over phase, they move across
forest slope and distance close to the road inciting conflict with humans
across their home ranges (Cozzi et al. 2016). Easy
bioavailability of anthropogenic food resources in agricultural crop fields is
reported to attract bears more towards human settlements than their natural
foraging grounds (Bargali et al. 2012; Can et al.
2014). Through this study, we wanted to better understand changes in land use
and land cover patterns in the context of conserving of Malayan Sun Bear habitats
in and around Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mizoram. We also
aimed to collect information on bear-human interaction and the dependency of
locals on forest resources.
Land use and land cover changes
(LULC) represent a serious threat to ecosystem sustainability as naturally
vegetated forms give way to manmade vegetation (Lambin
& Geist 2007). Such conversion is
known reduce the availability of energy, water and nutrients supplies to
ecosystems. On the other hand, it also facilitates the invasion of natural system
by exotic species (Kamusoko 2007).
Materials
and Methods
Study area
Dampa Tiger Reserve (DTR) is situated
in the Mamit district of Mizoram, India. DTR has an
area of about 500 km2 and a buffer region of over 448 km2
with 15 fringe villages and population of over 22,500 tribal from the Mizo, Reang (Bru) and Chakma
communities (Image 1). The reserve is home to several endemic and rare species
like Red Serow Capricornis
rubidus, Clouded Leopard Neofelis
nebulosa, Golden Cat Catopuma temminckii, and Great Hornbill Buceros
bicornis (Gouda et al. 2016; Sethy
et al. 2017; Singh & Macdonald 2017). DTR is one the last remaining
habitats for Malayan Sun Bear Helarctos malayanus in Mizoram and also among the few in the
northeastern states of India (Sethy & Chauhan
2013; Gouda et al. 2020). The region is under extreme threat due to the rapid
increase in the human settlement, practice of shifting cultivation and other
monoculture activities (Chauhan & Lalthunpuia
2008; Raman 2011). Livelihood of locals is mostly depended on the agriculture
system of slash & burn and other forest products.
Questionnaire Survey
Data on anthropogenic activities
was acquired through a set of questionnaires adapted for similar work by Aiyadurai et al. (2010). The survey was conducted from
April 2015 to March 2016. Villages and households were selected based on
information from key informants (village headmen, teachers, forest officials).
Male members of the family were prefer over females for the survey as they
spent more time in crop fields and surrounding forested areas than females. In
the survey, female respondents provided additional information on consumption
of food items by bears and other incidences of crop-raiding. The survey was
carried out in the presence of a field assistant from the local community
having thorough knowledge of local dialects. Questions were generally asked at
respondent’s home mainly at dusk time as most villagers return from their
fields during these hours. Each interview lasted for about 20–30 minutes,
depending on how the respondent interacts with us in the survey. Questions
related to encounters with sun bear, land-use pattern, livelihood options,
collection of forest products, hunting, use of animals or their parts as
sources of ethno-medicine were enquired. The questions were both open- and
close-ended (Appendix I) (Aiyadurai et al. 2010).
Transect survey and Data analysis
Evidence on the presence of
Malayan Sun Bear such as digging signs, scats and claw marks, remains of
fruit/food materials was documented through transect surveys using Steinmetz
& Garshelis (2007). The surveys consist of 3–4 persons walking through a pre-determined
transect path of 2–2.5 km. Vegetation
sampling was carried along the transect using the layout represented in Appendix
II. Plant species were identified using their local name based on Sawmiliana (2003).
Presence of humans including
settlements, forest cover, and agricultural land in eight villages around DTR
were acquired through the Indian Remote Sensing satellite data (LISS-III and Cartosat-I) and digitized using QGIS software for
preparation of land use land cover (LULC) maps.
Results
The extent of biotic pressures
In the study 760 households were
surveyed, of which 60% of respondents practiced slash & burn (jhum)
cultivation on more than a hectare of agricultural land, while 33% had less
than a hectare and 5.9% of surveyed individuals had no agricultural land and were
involved in other activities like small scale business, forest guard, and daily
wage labors. Of the 500 km2 of DTR, about
221.3 km2 (33.3%) were found to have high human interference and
were less occupied by sun bears. An area of 111.1 km2 (26%) was regarded
as moderately affected, while 96.9 km2 (22.5%) was affected to a
lower extent. Only 70.7 km2 (18%) of the core region was without any
form of biotic pressures with intact vegetation (Table 1).
The land use pattern for all the
villages is represented in Image 2. Information obtained from MIRSAC and its
mapping shows that highest number of agricultural land is in villages of West Phaileng (319 ha2) and Damparengpui
(283.8 ha2). Closed or dense forest was in highest proportion in Phuldungsei and least in Tuipuibari
(120 ha2) (Table 2). Grazing activities was relatively low or absent
in most part of DTR (Figure 1). Abandoned jhum fields were in largest number in
Damparengpui (939.60 ha2) followed by Silsuri (881.17 ha2) and Serhmun
(880.99 ha2) (Figure 1).
Usage of forest resources
In the study area, it appeared
that the locals rely heavily on forest resources for their livelihood. Forest
products in the form of NTFPs, food materials, and medicines were collected
from the buffer region and the surrounding forest patches or community forest.
Locals in the region collect 21% of their bamboo, 2.8% of timber, 28% of fuel
wood, and 11% of food and medicines from the forest. About 37% of respondents
were recorded collecting all the above from the buffer region. Various plant
species were used as food items, including young leaves of Acacia sp.,
Eurya japonica, & Garcinia lancifolia, tubers of Amomum dealbatum
and shoots of Adiantum caudatum, Diplazium esculentum,
Dysoxylum procerum,
& Melocana bambosoides.
Tree species like Anogeissus acuminata, Vitex penducularis, Schima wallichii, Syzygium cumini, and Albizzia
sp. were used for their timber quality. Fuel wood mostly comprises of
bamboo sp., Derris robusta, Castanopsis
tribuloides, Anogeissus acuminata, Vitex penducularis, Schima wallichii, and Albizzia
chinensis. Areas of fuel wood collection
ranged 1–5 km away from the village boundary. During winter 25–30 kg (54.24%)
of fuel wood was required per household every day; whereas in summer it was
only 10–15 kg per day. The fuel wood requirement was very low (18.22%) in
monsoon than winter and the summer. These variations in fuel wood requirement
can be attributed to the low temperature around DTR during winter and also the
fact that Mizoram receives heavy rainfall in the monsoon that leads the local
villagers to stock up woods during winters for their use in monsoon season. In
two divisions of DTR, Teirei and Phuldungsei
forest divisions, the frequency of lopped trees varied considerably with p
value of <0.004, c2= 89.16, df= 5.
In the survey it was found that
while some animals were hunted for medicinal value, the Malayan Sun Bear was
generally considered to be a ‘pest’ that feeds on maize, cucumber, sweet
potato, and pumpkins grown in adjacent areas of the reserve (Sethy & Chauhan 2013). A few cases of bear attacks on
humans in jhum crop fields were reported in the region before and during
the study period. Bear species were hunted mainly for their bile and as
retaliation for crop-raiding and crop depredation. Bile of both Asiatic Black
Bear Ursus tibetanus
and Malayan Sun Bear were found to be used for the treatment of appendix pain
and other stomach problems by local medicine men. Different parts of animals
like fats of snakes (Python molurus),
bear bile, pancreas of monitor lizard (Varanus
Indicus) and porcupine (Hystrix cristata), were often used against different health
ailments. The hunting accounts and the ethno-zoological usage of bear and other
wild animals are shown in Figure 2.
Discussion
Agricultural crop fields around
DTR are adjacent to the reserve areas with no proper demarcation or barriers,
allowing animals and humans trespass through easily. Fruits and vegetables like
maize, pumpkin, papaya, sweet potato, and cucumber grown in shifting crop
fields or jhum fields also act as excellent anthropogenic attractants for sun
bears and other wild species (Barrueto et al. 2014; Mohanta & Chauhan 2014; Becker et al. 2018). Such
attraction of wild animals towards human inhabited areas may result in
crop-raiding and depredation, or even death of humans or animals during sudden
face-offs. High numbers of agriculture crop fields and abandoned jhum fields in
West Phaileng and Damparengpui
can be attributed to the 22,587 people whose livelihood is dependent on the
forest and its resources (Sahoo et al. 2010; Mizoram population census 2011).
The LULC data suggest that the forest cover was least in Tuipuibari
and West Phaileng as these villages have several
commercial outlets and military posts. Among the population in the fringe
villages, it was notices that 37% of locals use all types of forest product
such as timber, vegetation, edible food items, followed by bamboo and fuel wood
as studied previously by Sahoo et al. (2010).
In the past few decades, the
fallow period of shifting cultivation has reduced to 2–3 years from 20–25
years, adding more abandoned land to the region. Areas under shifting
cultivation have also declined by 58% between 1997–98 and 2010–2011, replaced
by permanent wet paddy fields and farmlands (Raman 2001). The change in land
use patterns around the reserve could cause serious alterations in distribution
and health dynamics of bears as they move to distant regions in search of food
(Nielsen et al. 2013). Monoculture plantations of Oil Palm Elaeis
guineensis, Teak Tectona
grandis, Rubber Hevea
brasiliensis, and Betel Areca catechu have
also reduced forest cover and caused forest fragmentation (Mohanta
& Chauhan 2014). Garden hunting (farm-bush hunting), roads, recreation, and
resource extraction are other anthropogenic disturbances that lead to
biodiversity loss and negatively effect ecological
processes and ecosystem services (Crooks et al. 2017). During interviews many
farmers acknowledged that bears come to crop fields to forage, especially for
cucumber, pumpkin, and maize; however, the damage caused is negligible compared
with that of Wild Boars Sus scrofa and Asian
Elephants Elephas maximus, which indeed develops a negative perspective
towards conservation of wildlife. While
the Malayan Sun Bear was not the prime factor of crop-raiding around DTR,
accidental death of bears in traps and snares placed for Wild Boars were raised
during the interview. During the study period, one black bear cub (from Tuipuibari) and one sun bear cub (from Serhmun)
were rescued by the forest department, which were later released to the wild.
Although, previously some amount in the form of crop damage compensation was
received by local farmers, it was reported to be delay or ignored during the
study period. Lack of support from forest officials for adaptation of
alternative livelihood options (non-bear food) such as the distribution of
nursery seedling for betel and rubber were some additional points highlighted
by locals to mitigate bear-human interactions and other associated
human-induced pressure. Development of local markets for the sale of local
vegetables, ginger and chilli, were requested by villagers in the interview.
During the study period, it was
found that the use of body parts of bear and other wild species had reduced as
the younger generation discontinued their use. Although cases of hunting and
poaching have followed a drip trend, increase in human settlement, road
networks and setting up of permanent farmlands continuous to buffer areas of
DTR continue to affect the movement of Malayan Sun Bears. Hence it is important
to identify the levels of anthropogenic pressure and maintain the ecological
integrity, especially with several wildlife species around.
Conclusion
Dampa Tiger Reserve is part of a
complex human land-use mosaic that experiences variable forms of biotic and
anthropogenic pressure. The reserve is one of the few remaining habitats of
Malayan Sun Bears in India, and therefore proper knowledge on changes in
ecological variables and extent of anthropogenic activities is necessary to
conserve bears and their habitat. Research has shown the importance of
environmental heterogeneity on the growth of individuals and populations, and
understanding how these spatial and temporal dynamics affect the sun bear
populations will be crucial to identify and prioritize management and
conservation planning. This study can be used as a reference for similar
species, and also for other natural habitats of the Malayan Sun Bear in India
and throughout southeastern Asia.
Table 1. Extent of biotic
pressure and affected areas in Dampa Tiger Reserve.
Value designated |
Extent of biotic pressure |
Affected area in each category
(km2) |
% Area affected |
0 |
Nil |
70.7 |
18.1 |
1 |
Low |
96.9 |
22.5 |
2 |
Medium |
111.1 |
26.1 |
3 |
High |
221.3 |
33.3 |
Table 2. Geographical variables
in surrounding villages of Dampa Tiger Reserve.
Village |
Geographical variables (Area in ha2) |
||||||||
Agricultural land |
Dense/ Closed forest |
Open forest |
Grazing land |
Scrub forest |
Abandoned jhum |
Current jhum |
Barren rocky |
Open shrub |
|
Damparengpui |
283.80 |
1536.01 |
1794.04 |
356.53 |
2386.64 |
939.60 |
450.93 |
82.52 |
206.23 |
Chhippui |
147.82 |
1808.35 |
1490.60 |
0.0 |
2459.64 |
166.16 |
139.98 |
0.0 |
438.59 |
Serhmun |
129.68 |
1204.44 |
1387.01 |
621.41 |
1625.27 |
880.99 |
562.23 |
0.0 |
52.04 |
Tuipuibari |
0.0 |
120.03 |
1639.44 |
0.0 |
3877.62 |
272.73 |
256.73 |
0.0 |
389.40 |
West Phaileng |
319.02 |
1544.43 |
2850.23 |
0.0 |
3122.85 |
367.14 |
540.22 |
12.62 |
580.24 |
Phuldungsei |
0.0 |
5743.53 |
3451.12 |
0.0 |
4355.98 |
365.33 |
240.61 |
0.0 |
346.59 |
Saithah |
186.87 |
4458.07 |
1709.37 |
0.0 |
2203.62 |
161.98 |
112.83 |
0.0 |
163.43 |
Silsuri |
0.0 |
1095.04 |
1067.13 |
0.0 |
2539.53 |
881.17 |
815.90 |
103.89 |
292.51 |
For
figures & images - - click here
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