Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 April 2020 | 12(5): 15547–15556
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5149.12.5.15547-15556
#5149 | Received 10 June 2019 | Final
received 09 April 2020 | Finally accepted 14 April 2020
Community-based study to
demonstrate the presence and local perspectives of the Critically Endangered
Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla in
Zhejiang Wuyanling, China
Hongying Li *1, Shusheng Zhang *2, Ji Zhang 3,
Zupei Lei 4, Fangdong
Zheng 5 & Peter Daszak 6
1,6 EcoHealth Alliance, New York, New York, USA.
2,4,5 Zhejiang
Wuyanling National Natural Reserve Management Bureau,
Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
3 College of
Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou,
Zhejiang, China.
1 li@ecohealthalliance.org,
2 zhangshusheng323@qq.com, 3 15077839258@163.com, 4 leizp2007@163.com,
5 583296960@qq.com, 6 daszak@ecohealthalliance.org
(corresponding author)
* These
authors contributed equally to the work.
Editor:
L.A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India. Date
of publication: 26 April 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Li, H., S. Zhang, J. Zhang, Z. Lei, F. Zheng & P.
Daszak (2020). Community-based study to demonstrate the presence and
local perspectives of the Critically Endangered Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla in Zhejiang Wuyanling,
China. Journal of Threatened
Taxa 12(5): 15547–15556. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5149.12.5.15547-15556
Copyright:
© Li et al. 2020.
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This
study was funded by China Environmental Protection Foundation.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Hongying Li is a research scientist at EcoHealth Alliance who works in China and Southeast Asia
for zoonotic disease risk surveillance at the human-animal interface. Shusheng Zhang
works at Zhejiang Wuyanling National Natural Reserve
Management Bureau to lead the wildlife surveillance work. Ji Zhang is a graduate student at China Jiliang University who worked as a research assistant in
this study. Zupei Lei works at Zhejiang Wuyanling
National Natural Reserve Management Bureau to oversee the conservation work in
the Reserve. Fangdong Zheng works at Zhejiang Wuyanling National Natural Reserve Management Bureau to
lead the community education work. Peter Daszak is
the president at EcoHealth Alliance who oversees the
conservation and public health studies at the organization.
Author contribution: Study
design and fieldwork: SZ, JZ, ZL, FZ, HL; data analysis and writing the
article: HL, SZ and PD. Hongying Li and Shusheng Zhang contributed equally to this study.
Ethical standards: This
study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at China Jiliang University for the community questionnaire survey.
Acknowledgements: We are thankful for the
support of Dr. Fuhua Zhang
from Southern China Normal University and Dr. Jinshuo Zhang from the National Zoological Museum of China
for species identification, Dr. Aichun
Xu from China Jiliang University for field equipment,
and the IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group for advice on infrared camera trap
setting up. Special thanks to Dr. Aleksei
A. Chmura and Alison E. Andre for proofreading the article, as well as the
anonymous reviewers who provided critical references and technique guidance to
improve this manuscript.
Abstract: Illegal hunting and trading of
the Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla has
pushed this Critically Endangered species close to extinction. While local reports have suggested its
continued presence in mainland China, this has not been confirmed by a research
group except for a survey of presumed pangolin burrows in 2004. We conducted a six-month field study using
infrared camera surveillance and community questionnaire survey in Zhejiang Wuyanling National Nature Reserve in China, to determine
the status of Chinese Pangolins and understand local attitudes towards the
conservation of this species. Our study
details the first verifiable documentation of two visual records of a Chinese
Pangolin in the wild, demonstrating the suitability of pangolin habitat in Wuyanling region, and suggests an increasing awareness and
strong willingness in local communities to conserve the Chinese Pangolin.
Keywords: Community attitude,
conservation, infrared camera, Manis pentadactyla,
Wuyanling National Nature Reserve.
Introduction
The Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla is listed as Critically Endangered by the
IUCN primarily due to extensive poaching for their meat and scales (Challender et al. 2019). It receives the highest level of protection
from trade in CITES Appendix I (Challender & Waterman 2017). In China, the Chinese Pangolin is listed as a
State Category II protected species under the Wildlife Protection Law, with
protection from the Regulations on Implementation of Protection of Terrestrial
Wild Animals (Zhang 2008). Despite this, the population of the Chinese
Pangolin is thought to have declined by 89–94 % since the 1960s (Wu et al. 2004a). Little is known about the current
distribution or population of this solitary and nocturnal species, few studies
have been conducted in mainland China to detail the population of Chinese
Pangolins (Wu et al. 2002). Recent reports suggest that some remnant
individuals have been traded in illegal wildlife markets or confiscated from traders,
but the provenance of these animals from mainland China has not been
verified (Xu et al. 2016).
In 2013, our group recorded two camera-trap
images of a pangolin (Manis spp.) within the Wuyanling
National Nature Reserve (Zhang
et al. 2017). The
species was not identified due to limited characteristics recognisable in the
images. Our current study was designed
to further assess the presence of Chinese Pangolins in the reserve and
understand local community attitudes towards the species’ conservation. Wuyanling
National Nature Reserve is located in Taishun County
in southern Zhejiang Province (27.706, 119.675) (Figure 1 , 2). The reserve was established in 1975 and is an
important bird conservation area (BirdLife International 2019)
consisting of subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest with highly diverse flora
and fauna. Within an area of 18,861.5ha,
the reserve contains 4,170 households with 15,444 residents officially
registered with the local authorities, including 3,064 people residing in the
core area and buffer zone, and 12,380 in the transition area. The number of residents actually living
within the reserve is estimated to be less than 5,000, due to a large number having migrated to cities for work, according
to the latest population census in 2017 (Taishun Government 2017).
Materials and
Methods
Line transect and quadrat survey
Ten (10) line transects ranging 2–6 km in
length (total 39.8km) and six quadrats (1.00 hm2/quadrat) were
selected within the reserve extending from the uninhabited regions to the
nearby villages. With limited resources,
selection of the line transects and quadrats was based on the historical records
of pangolin sighting, poaching, and releasing activities, and in an effort to
cover the under-researched low-human disturbance areas. Diurnal surveys were conducted in each line
transect and quadrat once per month for six months from July to December 2017
to identify and examine potential burrows for Chinese Pangolins. Observational environmental data were
collected around each burrow, including estimated duration since burrow
excavation, presence of termites and decayed wood, and pangolin faeces or other
evidence of active occupation following the methods published in Wu et al. (2004b).
Camera traps surveillance
Sixty infrared
camera traps (LTL Acorn 5210A, LTL Acorn 6210) were placed in three
surveillance areas around the identified (potentially active) pangolin burrows
from the line transect and quadrat surveys, and in the reserve’s core area and
its adjacent transition area where was not covered by the line transect and
quadrat surveys, to maximize the chance of detection. All camera traps were placed 0.5–1 m above
ground, with consideration of the ground slope, height of trees, and the
inclination angle between 15°–30° to achieve the maximum diameter and range of
camera coverage. The intervals between
each camera trap and each surveillance area were >500m and >5,000m,
respectively. Corresponding to the
altitude range of potentially active burrows, the altitudes of camera traps
ranged 313–1,128 m across four different vegetation types. All camera traps were installed on 1
July 2017 and active until 31 December
2017. Burrows presumed to be inactive or
confirmed to be occupied by other species were omitted in the subsequent
investigations, and all potentially active burrows were investigated by the
monthly line transect or quadrat surveys and infrared camera traps for six
months (Figure 1).
Community questionnaire survey
In order to understand local knowledge of and
attitudes toward Chinese Pangolins, a standardized questionnaire was designed
in Mandarin (Appendix 1) for community survey. We aimed to obtain a sample size of n=3,000 to be statistically representative,
covering 60% of the permanent residents within the reserve at the maximum
estimation of 5,000 in total. 1) Prior
to recruitment and data collection, study staff from local village
committee and Wuyanling National Natural Reserve
Management Bureau conducted community meetings, house visits, and broadcasted
the information in the village to introduce this study to generate interest in
the community; 2) Recruitment was conducted at the community activity centre or
town hall in each village where local residents who were interested in the
project visited for further information and became potential participants; 3)
Study staff informed all potential participants about the survey for consent before
data collection; 4) After
the completion of informed consent process, questionnaires were administered
and one-on-one interviews were conducted in a private setting to ensure
confidentiality. Children aged 12–18
years were interviewed with the permission and presence of a parent or guardian
(e.g., school teacher). From September
to December 2017, a total of 3,041 questionnaires were distributed in 12 out of
the 15 villages within the nature reserve.
Three villages were omitted from the surveys because they had few
residents (<50) or only a small area of these villages was under the administration of the
nature reserve. Collected data were entered into IBM SPSS
Statistics software Version 25 and analysed by cross-table and Pearson’s
chi-squared test. All results were
translated into English for reporting.
Results
Potentially active burrows for pangolins
A
total of 33 burrows were located along nine line transects and in six quadrats
in the initial field survey. During the
monthly survey, burrows that were estimated to have been created more than 15
days or covered by spider webs and decayed leaves at the entrance were recorded
as inactive. Active burrows for Chinese
Pangolins were identified based on several environmental factors, including the
presence of termitarium and decayed wood (e.g., Pinus
massoniana, Cunninghamia
lanceolate) around a burrow (<50m), fresh soil at the entrance, and
suspect faeces (Image 1). As the survey
was conducted from July to December, seasonal burrow characteristics in regard
to the utilization of a burrow, and preferred locations for burrow excavation
in summer and winter were considered in identifying the active Chinese Pangolin
burrows (Wu et al. 2004b). Active burrows were found at five line
transects and two quadrats, further examination confirmed five potentially
active burrows for the Chinese Pangolins at two line transects and one quadrat
during the six-month survey (Table 1).
Some of the active burrows from the initial survey were later confirmed
by infrared cameras to be habitats for Chinese Ferret-Badger Melogale moschata,
Mongoose Herpestes urva,
or White-Bellied Rat Niviventer coninga.
Record of the Chinese Pangolin
A Chinese
Pangolin was recorded by an infrared camera on 21 December 2017 during the
study period, and another image of a Chinese Pangolin was recorded on 21
January 2018 at a different site (23km straight-line distance from the first
recording site) during the preparation of this manuscript (Image 2). The identification of these individuals as
the Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla was
confirmed by notable characteristics, including well-developed external ears
with big ear pinna, short heads (neck to snout) covered by small scales, and
soft, off-white hair on its underside and face.
Their scales are larger than the scales of the Philippine Pangolin Manis
culionensis but smaller than that of the Indian
Pangolin Manis crassicaudata, and gradually
increase in size behind the ears (Challender et al.
2019; Cota-Larson 2017). While the
Chinese Pangolin’s geographic range sometimes overlaps with that of the Sunda Pangolin Manis javanica,
it can also be distinguished by the scales on its flank or behind its
ears. Additionally, there are no
historic records of the presence of Sunda Pangolins
in this region as well (Challender et al. 2014; IUCN
SSC Pangolin Specialist Group 2019).
Demographic characteristics of community
survey participants
Out of the 3,041 distributed questionnaires,
data were collected from 2,654 anonymous participants (87.3% response rate) in
12 villages. Most of the participants
(51.1% male; 48.9% female) were subsistence farmers (59.9%) who raise crops and
domestic animals. Other significant groups were migrant workers (20.6%),
students (12%) and government employees (2.5%) (Table 2).
Knowledge and attitude about Chinese
Pangolins
About half of the participants (49%)
considered the Chinese Pangolin as endangered or critically endangered based on
their experience and knowledge and 11% believed that it had become extinct
locally, while some participants didn’t think the Chinese Pangolin was
endangered (21%) or expressed no knowledge of its current status (19%). For those participants who were aware of the Chinese
Pangolin, they acquired the information mostly from social media platforms
(31.4%), school teaching (30.2%), or television (24.1%), government campaign
appeared to be a minor (7.1%) channel to disseminate the relevant
information. More than half (58.6%) of
the participants recognized the ecological value of Chinese Pangolins, but many
still regarded the species as a valuable economic (12.7%), medical (20.5%), and
food (6.6%) source, and 21% of the participants stated that they would support
the use of pangolins or pangolin products for traditional Chinese medicine.
Pangolin consumption in local community
Majority of the
participants who reported having consumed pangolin meat or relevant products
(101, 3.8%) in their lifetimes were male (73.3%), subsistence farmers (82.2%),
and over 50 years old (97%), which was significantly associated with age
(p<0.001), gender (P<0.001), and occupation (p<0.001) (Table 3). The taste and nutrition (34.1%), perceived
medical benefits (25.4%), demonstration of wealth (15.9%), or simply out of
curiosity (11.1%) were reported as the reasons of pangolin consumption. Some participants (11.9%) indicated consuming
pangolins as a supplemental source of dietary protein a long time ago (the year
was not specified). Other participants
reported refusing to consume pangolins because of its illegality (39%), the
perceived cruelty (38.4%), the cause of population decline (15.9%), or due to
its expected bad taste (6.7%).
Community willingness for pangolin
conservation
Most participants (95.3%) indicated that they
would report pangolin hunting or trading activities to the forestry department’s
public security staff (61.3%) or the general public security staff
(38.7%). Some participants, particularly
those between 31–50 years old (p<0.001) regardless of their occupation,
reported that they would like to reap the economic benefits of trading pangolins
(4.7%). Many participants indicated
their willingness to contribute to local pangolin conservation (60%) and
believed that informing the public about the species’ protected status would
help motivate public action to protect pangolins (60.4%). When asked to provide
insights about the specific action that would help protect local Chinese
Pangolins, participants emphasized the needs to strengthen law enforcement
(21.9%), improve local participation in voluntary work (19.8%), disseminate
information (19.7%), refuse to consume pangolin products (19.7%), and actively
protect pangolin habitat (16.0%).
Discussions
Our camera trap records of the Chinese Pangolin in 2017 and
2018, and the prior record in 2013 in Wuyanling (Zhang et al. 2017)
suggest that Wuyanling National Nature Reserve
contains a viable habitat for Chinese Pangolins. While samples were not collected for DNA
analysis, the distinctive features of the Chinese Pangolin are evident in the
video and
images captured, confirming its presence (Video 1). Greater efforts needed to conduct initial
fieldwork to identify potentially active burrows and increase the coverage of
camera traps in Wuyanling region and other sites that
are suspected to harbour extant populations of Chinese Pangolins to further
understand the populations. In addition, camera traps were
positioned at 0.5–1.0 m height in our study based on our experience in mammal
surveillance, however, positioning camera traps lower around 30cm above ground
may better record Chinese Pangolins and other small mammals in future study
(Willcox et al. 2019).
We noted the existence of an estimated 5–10
burrow entrances grouped within an area of 300m2,
suggesting Chinese Pangolins possibly create burrows in a cluster, which needs
further study to confirm. Future field
surveys should include collection of faeces or scales for DNA analysis,
improved surveillance methods (e.g., distance sampling combined with
confirmation of burrow occupancy, proper camera setting), and further
understanding of the burrow ecology of Chinese Pangolins. With enhanced methodology, similar research
can be conducted at other sites in China and across Asia. The characteristics of the habitat in Wuyanling could be used to identify other potential
habitats where extant populations may be identified, as well as for the site
selection to release confiscated Chinese Pangolins from the authorities in
China. DNA testing of confiscated
pangolins will be needed to ensure that only native species are released and
the IUCN protocols on the appropriate release of animals into the wild would be
followed (IUCN/SSC 2013).
The community survey identified male
subsistence farmers over 50 years old as the main population in Wuyanling to have had consumed pangolins. The fact that younger population do not
report consumption of pangolins (Nash
et al. 2016) may be explained by the improved livelihoods
over the past 40+ years leading to improved nutrition and reduced dependence on
wildlife as an alternate source of protein.
Significant social change has also occurred during this time, including
the migration of people into cities for work which may have decreased exposure
of younger people to the custom of wildlife consumption. The teaching of wildlife conservation
principles in schools and opportunities for volunteering in conservation work
may also contribute to the changing attitude and behaviour towards conservation
of Chinese Pangolins. While the time
frame of pangolin consumption among Wuyanling
residents was not identified in the questionnaire, local knowledge about the
current status of Chinese Pangolins as well as the frequent consumption
reported by older participants suggest most consumption may have been
historic. Further study will be conducted
to understand the context of pangolin consumption behaviours to develop evidence-based behavioural
change programs.
Our findings demonstrate an overall positive
public attitude towards the ecological value of the Chinese Pangolin and its
conservation. There is a significant
awareness of the illegality of pangolin hunting and consumption in the
communities, prompting the communities to report illegal hunting and refuse
consumption. Constant education about
the illegality of consumption and reinforced conservation needs of Chinese
Pangolins via social media,
television, and school programs is recommended to keep raising the awareness
and motivate action in the communities for pangolin conservation. In addition, the marked community willingness
to participate in pangolin conservation work suggests a potential for positive
behavioural changes when effective programs implemented. With a remnant viable Chinese Pangolin
population present in the wild in mainland China and a potential generational
transformation in public perception of its conservation status, we believe
there may still be an opportunity to avoid extinction of this Critically
Endangered species.
Table 1. Observation of burrows in 10 line transects
and six quadrats. Active burrows were
located at five line transects and two quadrats, further examination confirmed
five potentially active burrows for Chinese Pangolins at two line transects and
one quadrat.
Line
Transect |
|
||||
|
Length (km) |
Burrow(s) |
Estimated
duration of burrow excavation |
Termitarium & Decayed wood |
Other Information |
1 |
5.5 |
Inactive |
>1 month |
X |
Release location |
2 |
3.2 |
Inactive |
>15 days |
X |
|
3 |
2.5 |
Inactive |
>1 month
|
X |
|
4 |
5.0 |
Inactive |
>1 month |
|
|
5 |
4.5 |
Active* |
<15 days |
X |
Suspect faeces |
6 |
4.0 |
Active |
<15 days |
|
Record of other species |
7 |
6.0 |
None |
n/a |
n/a |
|
8 |
3.5 |
Active |
<15 days |
|
Record of other species |
9 |
2.0 |
Active |
<15 days |
|
Record of other species |
10 |
3.6 |
Active* |
<15 days
|
X |
Record of a Chinese Pangolin |
Quadrat |
|
||||
|
Size (hm2) |
Burrow(s) |
Estimated
duration of burrow excavation |
Termitarium & Decayed wood |
Other Information |
1 |
1 |
Inactive |
>1 month
|
X |
|
2 |
1 |
Inactive |
>1 month
|
X |
|
3 |
1 |
Inactive |
>15 days
|
X |
|
4 |
1 |
Inactive |
>15 days |
|
|
5 |
1 |
Active* |
<15 days
|
X |
Suspect faeces |
6 |
1 |
Active |
<15 days |
|
Record of other species |
* Potentially active burrows for Chinese
Pangolins.
Table 2. Demographics of community questionnaire
survey participants.
|
Participants (n=2,654) |
|
Characteristics |
Frequency N |
Percent % |
Gender |
|
|
Male |
1,356 |
51% |
Female |
1,298 |
49% |
Age (years) |
|
|
<18 |
383 |
14% |
18–30 |
262 |
10% |
31–50 |
1,247 |
47% |
>50 |
762 |
29% |
Occupation |
|
|
Government employee |
67 |
3% |
Peasant |
1,590 |
60% |
Student |
319 |
12% |
Migrant worker |
546 |
21% |
Others |
132 |
5% |
Village |
|
|
Bai Hai |
72 |
3% |
Cha Shi |
366 |
14% |
Wu Dou |
62 |
2% |
Ma Lian |
223 |
8% |
Huang Qiao |
557 |
21% |
Zhu Li |
264 |
10% |
Yang Bian |
109 |
4% |
Dao Jun Yang |
285 |
11% |
Wen Yang |
58 |
2% |
Xin Bei |
256 |
10% |
Ye Shan |
186 |
7% |
Shang Di |
216 |
8% |
Table 3. Questionnaire results from local population
in Wuyanling region (n = 2,654): consumption of
pangolin products and its associations with the age, gender, and occupation.
Pangolin Products Consumption |
Yes |
No |
Pearson
chi-square |
||
Value |
df |
P (2-sided) |
|||
Gender |
|
|
|
|
|
Female |
27 (26.7%) |
1,271
(49.8%) |
20.661 |
1 |
<.001 |
Male |
74 (73.3%) |
1,282
(50.2%) |
|||
Age |
|
|
|
|
|
<18 yr |
2 (2.0%) |
381 (14.9%) |
239.686 |
3 |
<.001 |
18–30 yr |
1 (1.0%) |
261 (10.2%) |
|||
31–50 yr |
0 (0.0%) |
1,247
(48.8%) |
|||
>50 yr |
98 (97.0%) |
664 (26.0%) |
|||
Occupation |
|
|
|
|
|
Government employee |
1 (1.0%) |
66 (2.6%) |
26.146 |
4 |
<.001 |
Subsistence farmers |
83 (82.2%) |
1,507
(59.0%) |
|||
Student |
0 (0.0%) |
319 (12.5%) |
|||
Migrant worker |
12 (11.9%) |
534 (20.9%) |
|||
Others |
5 (5.0%) |
127 (5.0%) |
For
figures, images & Appendix - - click
here
Video 1. Camera trap video of a Chinese
Pangolin
in Zhejiang Wuyanling
National Nature Reserve, 2017.
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