Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August
2019 | 11(10): 14334–14348
Multivariate
analysis of elements from the microhabitats of selected plateaus in the Western Ghats, Maharashtra, India
Priti Vinayak Aphale 1,
Dhananjay Chintaman Meshram 2, Dnyaneshwar Maruti Mahajan 3,
Prasad Anil Kulkarni 4 &
Shraddha Prasad Kulkarni 5
1,5 Department
of Environmental Sciences, Fergusson College, Shivajinagar, Pune, Maharashtra
411004, India.
2 Department of
Geology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind Road, Pune,
Maharashtra 411007, India.
3 Department of
Botany, Baburaoji Gholap College, Sangvi, Pune, Maharashtra 411027, India.
4 Post graduate
Research Centre in Environmental Sciences, Department of Applied Sciences,
College of Engineering, Wellesely Road, Shivajinagar, Pune, Maharashtra 411005,
India.
1 aphale.priti@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 dcmeshram@gmail.com, 3 mahajandm@gmail.com,
4 prasaadkulkarni@gmail.com,
5 shraddhakarikar@gmail.com
Abstract: The Western Ghats represents a small part of the
Deccan Traps continental flood basalt province that erupted about 65 million
years ago. It is an area of outstanding
scenic beauty and has attracted the attention of geologists, naturalists and
geomorphologists for over a century. One
of the unique habitats in the Western Ghats are the rocky plateaus. Previous studies have covered plant species
composition, geological and geomorphological status of the rocky plateaus. An analytical study of microhabitats and
associated therophytes of four rocky plateau sites was conducted. The study sites were Durgawadi Plateau,
Naneghat Plateau which are basalt outcrops and Zenda plateau and Amba Plateau,
which are laterite outcrops on the escarpment of the northern Western
Ghats. The results revealed a
correlation between basalt and lateritic rock outcrops as well as ephemeral
plant elements. All four outcrops are
similar in their nutrient status but the microhabitats of these plateaus are
extremely different from each other.
Keywords: Basalt, ephemeral, geology, laterite, Rock outcrop,
therophytes.
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4980.11.10.14334-14348
Editor: Aparna Watve, Biome Foundation,
Pune, India. Date of publication: 26 August 2019
(online & print)
Manuscript details: #4980 | Received 30 March 2019 |
Final received 04 August 2019 | Finally accepted 11 August 2019
Citation: Aphale, P.V., D.C. Meshram, D.M.
Mahajan, P.A. Kulkarni & S.P. KulKarni (2019). Multivariate analysis of
elements from the microhabitats of selected plateaus in the Western Ghats,
Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 11(10): 14334–14348. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4980.11.10.14334-14348
Copyright: © Aphale et al. 2019. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The study is funded by Board of University
and College Development (BCUD), Savitribai Phule, Pune University, Pune.
Competing
interests: The authors declare no competing
interests.
Author details: Ms. Priti Vinayak Aphale—associated with Department of
Environmental Science, Fergusson College, Pune. Interested in habitat ecology
studies and conservation related research. Baseline data collected for sacred
groves of Maval Tahsil, Pune since 2012 with special reference to community
participation in conservation. Current studies include impact assessment of
developmental activities on plateaus and geomrphological and geochemical
characterization of plateaus in Western Ghats.
Dr. Dhananjay Chintaman Meshram—Professor
in Geology, associated with Department of Geology, SPPU, Pune. Interested in
Geochemistry, characterization of river sediments, characterization of
Basalt. Dr.
Dnyaneshwar Maruti Mahajan—Associate Professor with over 24 years of
teaching experience and 27 years of research experience. Interested in plant
diversity, wetland Ecology, phytoremediation ,ecological restoration, habitat
modification and its impact, urban ecology, biomass carbon sequestration and
exotic and invasive species. Dr. Prasad Anil Kulkarni—associated with
Post Graduate Research Center in Environmental Sciences Department of Applied
Sciences, College of Engineering, Pune.
Interested in change detection mapping of Mangrove Ecosystem of Raigad
Coast, Maharashtra and in ecosystem monitoring and its conservation related
research. Dr. Shraddha Prasad Kulkarni—associated with Department of
Environmental Science, Fergusson College, Pune. Interested in ecosystem
monitoring and its conservation related research. Baseline data collected for
Ujjani Wetland, Maharashtra, India since 2010 with special reference to
preferential habitat utilization of wetland by bird communities. Habitat
monitoring and association of communities were analysed by applying various
statistical models.
Author contribution: PVA—contributed in research idea development and experiment design as
well as implementation on field, sample collection and analysis; DCM—suggested
and contributed in geochemical and geomrphological characterization of plateaus
and interpretation of the data; DMM—contributed in identification of species
and microhabitats from the plateau ecosystem; PAK—supported in plateau
Ecosystem monitoring, field data collection and technical aspects;
SPK—supported in statistical analysis for various tests applied to the data and
result interepretaion.
Acknowledgements: We owe many thanks to our family members, for being constant companions
in all the hard field work and writing of this study. We gratefully acknowledge
help of Dr. Aparna Watve, for taking a personal interest in guiding us about
all the scientific work on rocky outcrop habitats and constant support and
encouragement in the initial research which was crucial for this study. We are
indebted to funding agencies, mentioned above; the reviewers; Dr. Mandar Datar,
Agharkar Research Institute for his guidance, Biosakshat team for statistical
analysis. And most importantly, all
those who have directly as well as indirectly helped us in the present study.
Introduction
The Sahyadri Range is one of the spectacular geographic
features of the Indian subcontinent.
Documenting the plant species was necessary to understand the nature of
vegetation (Sambhaji 2015). A compilation with commentary of landmark papers by the Geological Society of India’s
(Gunnell & Radhakrishna 2001) findings till date gives us an idea about its
uniqueness. One of the distinctive
aspects of the geomorphology of the Sahyadri Range is the presence and
preservation of two “paleosurfaces” indicated by laterite (Fox 1923; Widdowson
& Cox 1996; Widdowson 1997). Cliffs,
isolated hills, and platforms of rocks formed due to landscape level activities
of weathering are the types of outcrops seen commonly in India, whereas “rock
outcrops” is the term recognized by IUCN as a category of habitats wherein some
portions of freely exposed bedrock project above the soil level due to natural
reasons (Porembski & Watve 2005).
According to Porembski (2007) well-known rocky outcrops in the world are
inselbergs, barrens, cedar glades, cliffs, serpentine, ultramafic, limestone,
and gypsum outcrops. He also suggested
that each of these are known to harbor highly specialized vegetation rich in
microhabitat-specific and endemic plants.
Rock outcrop habitats are generally of small extent within a region and
present particular habitat limitations, e.g., greater exposure to sun and
scarcity of soil. The microenvironment
at the rock surface ranges from very hot and arid in dry season to water logged
in the wet season. Hence edaphically
controlled herbaceous plant communities are characteristic of rock
outcrops. Rock outcrops are very well
known throughout the world for their uniqueness, but are less studied
habitats. Most studies are from African,
American and Australian outcrops (Porembski et al. 1994, 2000; Burke 2005a,b;
Jacobi et al. 2007) describing the habitat types and associated vegetation
composition. In India, relatively very
few reports exist about vegetation on these special habitats (Porembski &
Watve 2005; Watve 2008, 2013; Lekhak & Yadav 2012; Bhattarai et al. 2012).
The rock outcrops in the Western
Ghats of Maharashtra are of two types based on the rock formation and soil type
developed from it: (i) Lateritic—lateritic rock cover is well preserved over
the parent basalt rock and soil rich in iron, and (ii) Basaltic—having black
hard rock and soil. Durgawadi and
Naneghat plateaus from the northwestern corner of Pune District are entirely
basaltic but have some lateritic soil due to weathering. They have a diversity of micro-habitats and
are rich in flora and fauna. Trees or
shrubs are less in number, but herbaceous angiosperms, algae, mosses, ferns and
lichens are generally abundant in these habitats. Many of the endemic ephemerals, herbaceous
angiosperms, pteridophytes and lichens, however, are restricted to these
special habitats (Watve 2008). Species
composition patterns and outcrop communities are influenced by multiple
environmental factors like soil type, elevation, aspect of that rock outcrop
and micro-environments (Watve 2013).
Moreover, transect studies of plateaus in northern Western Ghats region
conducted by Watve (2008 & 2013) discuss the vegetation composition and
pattern of some microhabitats on the plateaus.
A comprehensive botanical study of two rock outcrops, Durgawadi Plateau
(DP) and Naneghat Plateau (NP), on the escarpment of northern Western Ghats
revealed a very high plant diversity within the sites and between the sites (Rahangdale
& Rahangdale 2014). Herbaceous
vegetation of high-level lateritic plateaus of southwestern Maharashtra have
been studied by Lekhak & Yadav (2012).
These studies have revealed the importance of microhabitats as this
plateau vegetation has unique microhabitats that support distinct plant
communities depending primarily on soil, depth of the soil and moisture
availability. None of these studies
describe the interrelationship between nutrient status and plant
communities. Hence, the present study
was carried out to find out the correlation between nutrient status of selected
microhabitats and associated plant communities with the following objectives.
Identification and RS & GIS
based mapping of microhabitats at plateau ecosystem
Sampling and analysis of trace
and major elements of rock as well as soil from microhabitats
Identification and selection of
ephemerals in plateau ecosystem
Sampling and analysis of trace
and major elements of selected plant communities
Understanding correlation among
elements, microhabitats and plant communities as well as plateaus using
statistical methods
Study
Area
Durgawadi
Plateau (Image 1): It is located 60km from Junnar Town at 1,200m altitude. The plateau top can be reached after a steep
climb from Inglun Village at 19.1930N, 73.6950E &
19.2170N, 73.6420E.
The road passes through the villages of Ambe, Hatwij, and Kathewadi and
ends at the sacred grove of Durgawadi, which overlooks the Konkan area. Adjacent to it is the plateau of Warsubai
Temple. The Durgawadi Plateau is
floristically very important because a number of new taxa are described from
this region or adjacent region.
According to Rahangdale (2009), Yadav (2010), Aitawade & Yadav
(2012), and Rahangdale & Rahangdale (2012) all new taxa described from the
location are endemic to Durgawadi.
Naneghat
Plateau (Image 2): It is located 26km away from Junnar Town at 19.2710N,73.7200E
& 19.2980N,73.6720E, 700m. The rocky hills of this region are well known
forts. There is a tar road from Junnar
to Naneghat (Ghatghar Village). The
basalt is exposed as a broad expanse at a low altitude and bounded by sacred
groves, reserve forest patches, rice fields and vertical slopes. The outcrop and its surroundings are affected
by biotic pressures. Hemadri (1980) and
Rahangdale (2009) denoted that Naneghat Plateau area is rich in plant
diversity.
Amba Plateau
(Image 3): Amba plateau
is located at 16.9850N, 73.7840E & 16.9870N,
73.7970E, 740m, and overlooks the Amba Ghat which is a famous
monsoon tourist destination. The plateau
top can be reached from a forested path through Amba village.
Zenda
plateau (Image 4): Zenda-Dhangarwada Plateau is a least disturbed outcrop located at 16°55’5.50”N,
16.9180N, 73.7970E & 16.9040N, 73.8490E,
1025m. The plateau is known as Zenda
Hill and is located between Manoli-Gajapur-Dhangarwada villages near Amba
Ghat. The plateau top on Manoli side can
be approached from a forested footpath branching from Amba to Vishalgad road
(Images 5 & 6).
Methods
Maharashtra possesses characteristic habitats called high level plateaus
(Watve 2007). Many of them represent
lateritic, basaltic as well as sandy characteristics. Of the four plateaus which were found least
disturbed, the ones representing basalt and laterite were selected for the said
research. All of these are located in
the Western Ghats at Pune and Kolhapur regions.
These were specifically selected after referencing existing literature
and after conducting several field surveys.
GIS mapping – tools and
techniques
The research area was surveyed
extensively to mark the boundaries of the plateaus. Exact latitudes and longitudes were recorded
and marked by using Garmin 5 handheld GPS.
These lat-longs were then calibrated with Google Earth version 6.2
(http://www.Google.com/earth/index.html) to get .kmz images as a reference
database. For freshly captured images,
satellite data was procured from NRSC, Hyderabad. The data was further used to mark each
microhabitat at each plateau (Table 1) on ArcGIS … and ERDAS 9.1 platform. Each plateau as well as each microhabitat was
GPS marked.
In all, three field study visits
were carried out during different seasons: pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon
(June–October), and winter (November–February) to understand the seasonal
variations from 2013 to 2017.
Sampling and analysis of soil
and rock
Rock and soil sampling was done
from the microhabitats marked using GIS; wherever soil was accumulated in
microhabitats soil samples were collected from 100cm depth. For habitats like boulders and exposed rock
surfaces, the intact rocks were broken and samples were collected. These samples were analyzed using x-ray
fluorescence spectrophotometry (XRF). It
is a non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the elemental
composition of materials. XRF analyzers determine the chemistry of a
sample by measuring the fluorescent (or secondary) x-ray emitted from a sample
when it is excited by a primary x-ray source.
The method is used extensively to analyze trace and major elements of
rock as well as soil in a powdered form.
Nutrients, Nitrogen by Kjeldahl’s method and organic Carbon by Walkley
& Black method. The data of XRF
analysis is heterogenously distributed over 50 elements around two rock types
from four locations distributed over 10–11 microhabitats. Dimensions of which are 2*4*11*50 and types
of measurements are percentage and part-per-million.
The statistical analysis was
carried out using R v3.3.3 and ggplot2 v2.2.0 package
Identification of micro habitats
at plateau ecosystem
Plants on the plateaus are
adapted to various microhabitats and each of these is unique in its edaphic
properties, water availability and species composition (Porembski &
Barthlott 2000). According to Jacobi et
al. (2007) and Watve & Thakur (2006) the most common habitat types observed on
plateaus have been identified by following an established categorization for
rock outcrops.
Identification and selection of
ephemerals at plateau ecosystem
A comprehensive list of plants
has been prepared for each microhabitat classified as per Raunkiaer
(1934). Phenology was recorded and all
the specimens collected were therophytes.
An analysis reveals that nearly 70% of the species associated with
plateau ecosystem are therophytes (Porembski 2000). The species found in abundance were collected
by direct uprooting method along with all parts including roots to flowers. Care was taken to avoid disturbing species nearby. Identification of species was done using
regional flora of Kolhapur and Pune and the literature available. Collected plant specimens were processed at
the herbarium using standard techniques.
All herbarium specimens were deposited in Agharkar Research Institute,
Pune for authentication. This was
recorded as a first set of samples. The
second set of samples were carefully dried in shade. Soil particles from the roots were carefully
removed from the plants, and the sample plants were powdered with mortar and
pestle. Further, these set of samples
were analyzed by XRF to understand trace and major elements (Table 2). Kjeldahl’s and Walkley & Black methods
were used for nutrients like Nitrogen and organic Carbon, respectively. Multivariate statistical analysis was done
using software like PAST and R. This was
done to understand correlation among elements, microhabitats and plant
communities as well as plateaus (Shtangeeva & Alber 2009). Interrelationship among elements was also
identified. Table 1 shows the details of
the samples collected and processed.
Results
and Discussion
The multivariate analysis of
variance (MANOVA) was carried out between the selected elements of plants and
rocks across four regions (Durgawadi, Naneghat, Amba, and Zenda) for 10
nutrient elements. The p-values were
estimated using multivariate Pillai–Bartlett test statistic.
The overall MANOVA, carried out
across all the regions, indicated a significant difference in the content of
all the nutrient elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 2.2e-16;
<0.001) (Fig. 1).
In the case of Durgawadi region,
based on the MANOVA it was observed that there was significant difference in
the content of nutrient elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 1.795e-12;
<0.001). Further investigations
revealed that except Zinc, all other elements were significantly contributing
towards the differences in nutrients of rocks and plants in the Durgawadi (Fig.
2) plateau.
Similar to Durgawadi, the
Naneghat region also showed a significant difference in the content of nutrient
elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 4.761e-09; < 0.001). Copper, however, did not contribute
significantly towards the differences between rocks and plants in the Naneghat
(Fig. 3) region.
When Amba region was analysed
using MANOVA it revealed that there was significant difference in the content
of nutrient elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 5.667e-10;
<0.001). Further investigation
revealed that except Zinc, all other elements significantly contributed towards
the differences in nutrients of rocks and plants in the Amba region, which is
similar to Durgawadi (Fig. 4)
In case of Zenda region, based
on the MANOVA it was observed that there was significant difference in the
content of nutrient elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 1.31e-06;
<0.001). Closer inspection showed that
the elements Calcium, Manganese, Zinc and Copper did not contribute towards the
significant differences in plants and rocks of Zenda region (Fig. 5). It shows that the nutrient profiles of plant
and rocks in Zenda region is characteristically different from other regions.
MANOVA between Plants and Rocks
The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was
carried out between plants and rocks across four regions (Durgawadi, Naneghat,
Amba and Zenda) for ten nutrient elements. The p-values were estimated using
multivariate Pillai–Bartlett test statistic.
In case of the Durgawadi region, based on the MANOVA
it was observed that there was significant difference in the content of
nutrient elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 1.795e-12;
<0.001). Further investigation revealed that except Zinc, all other elements
were significantly contributing towards the differences in nutrients of rocks
and plants in the Durgawadi (Fig. 1: Durgwadi_manova_boxplot.png) region.
Similar to Durgawadi, the Naneghat region also showed
significant difference in the content of nutrient elements between rocks and
plants (p-value = 4.761e-09; <0.001). However, Copper did not contribute
significantly towards the differences between rocks and plants in the Naneghat
(Fig. 2: Naneghat_manova_boxplot.png) region.
When Amba region was analyzed using MANOVA it revealed
that there was significant difference in the content of nutrient elements
between rocks and plants (p-value = 5.667e-10; <0.001). Further
investigation revealed that except Zinc, all other elements were significantly
contributing towards the differences in nutrients of rocks and plants in the
Amba region, which is similar to Durgawadi (Fig. 3: Amba_manova_boxplot.png).
In case of Zenda region, based on the MANOVA it was
observed that there was significant difference in the content of nutrient
elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 1.31e-06; <0.001).
Closer inspection shows that the elements Calcium, Manganese, Zinc and Copper
do not contribute towards the significant differences in plants and rocks of
Zenda region (Fig. 4: Zenda_manova_boxplot.png). It shows that the nutrient
profiles of plant and rocks in Zenda region is characteristically different
from the other regions.
The overall MANOVA, carried out across all the
regions, also indicated the significant difference in the content of all the
nutrient elements between rocks and plants (p-value = 2.2e-16; <
0.001) (Fig. 5: Combined_manova_boxplot.png).
Conclusion
The overall results show that nutrients, trace and
major elements under study in all four selected plateaus are significantly
different. The Zenda Plateau, the least
disturbed plateau in all four plateaus, shows characteristically different
nutrient and element content. As
Calcium, Manganese, Zinc, and Copper do not contribute towards significant
differences in plants and rocks of Zenda region. Each of these areas is different and needs to
be studied in detail to understand the dynamics of the ecosystem. Except Zinc, similarity was observed in all
elements when samples were analyzed from rocks as well as plants at Durgawadi- Basalt and Amba-Lateritic
plateaus. For understanding the causes of
such similarities more such studies are needed.
The environmental exceptionality, high diversity, lack of studies and
speedy destruction of these ecosystems pose an abrupt challenge for their
conservation. These should not be
considered as wastelands as they are ecologically significant and a hold
scientifically unknown facts.
Table 1. Samples collected from microhabitats across
the plateaus.
Microhabitat |
Durgawadi |
Naneghat |
Amba |
Zenda |
Cliffs |
Rock |
Rock |
Rock |
Rock |
Exposed
rock surfaces |
Rock |
Rock |
Rock |
Rock |
Ephemeral
pools |
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Sacred
groves |
Soil
|
Soil
|
NA |
NA |
Soil
covered areas |
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Seasonal
ponds |
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Rock
crevices |
Rock |
Rock |
Rock |
Rock |
Boulders |
Rock |
NA |
Rock |
Rock |
Soil
richareas |
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
filled depressions |
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Plateau
tree cover |
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Soil
|
Table 2. Selection of elements for XRF and nutrient
analysis of ephemeral plants.
Type of element |
Name of the element |
Reason for selection |
Method of estimation |
Nutrients |
Organic
Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium |
Essential
nutrients |
OC
(Walkley & Black), Nitrogen
(Kjeldahl’s), Phosphorous
& Potassium (XRF) |
Major
elements |
Calcium,
Magnesium, Iron, Manganese |
Selected
as per t-test results across the regions |
XRF
method |
Trace
elements |
Zinc,
Copper |
Selected
as per t-test results across the regions |
XRF
method |
Appendix 1. Species recorded from four plateaus.
|
Species |
Family |
Durgawadi microhabitat |
Naneghat microhabitat |
Amba microhabitat |
Zenda microhabitat |
1 |
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
Asteraceae |
- |
CE |
- |
- |
2 |
Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K. Jansen |
Asteraceae |
- |
- |
SCA |
- |
3 |
Adenocaryum coelestium (Lindl.) Brand |
Commelinaceae |
+ |
SCA |
- |
SCA |
4 |
Adenoon indicum Dalzell |
Asteraceae |
- |
- |
- |
SFD |
5 |
Adiantum sp. |
Adiantaceae |
- |
- |
- |
B |
6 |
Alysicarpus belgaumensis Wight |
Fabaceae |
- |
- |
- |
SFD |
7 |
Antraxon jubatus Hack |
Poaceae |
CE,
SCA, PTC |
CE,
SCA, PTC |
- |
CE,
SCA, PTC |
8 |
Antraxon lanceolatus var meeboldi (stapf) welzen |
Poaceae |
- |
- |
- |
SFD |
9 |
Argemone mexicana L. |
Papaveraceae |
SFD |
- |
- |
- |
10 |
Argyreia cuneata Ker Gawl. |
Convolvulaceae |
SG |
- |
PTC |
- |
11 |
Argyreia sericea Dalzell |
Convolvulaceae |
SG |
SG |
- |
PTC |
12 |
Arisaema murrayi (Graham) Hook. |
Araceae |
SRA,B |
SRA,B |
SRA,B |
SRA,B |
13 |
Arundinella ciliata |
Poaceae |
- |
SFD |
- |
|
14 |
Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Steud |
Poaceae |
- |
- |
SRA |
- |
15 |
Asystasia dalzelliana Sant. |
Acanthaceae |
CE,
RC, SG |
CE,
RC, SG |
CE,
RC |
CE,
RC |
16 |
Begonia crenata Dryand. |
Begoniaceae |
CE,
B |
CE |
CE,
B |
CE,
B |
17 |
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff. |
Asteraceae |
- |
ERS |
- |
- |
18 |
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. |
Oxalidaceae |
SRA |
- |
- |
- |
19 |
Blepharis maderaspatensis B. Heyne ex Roth |
Acanthaceae |
- |
ERS,
RC |
- |
- |
20 |
Blumea malcolmii Hook.f. |
Asteraceae |
CE,
RC |
CE,
RC |
|
CE,
RC |
21 |
Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. |
Scrophulariaceae |
SCA |
- |
- |
- |
22 |
Burmannia coelestis |
Burmanniaceae |
- |
- |
SRA |
- |
23 |
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ex Roem. & Schult. |
Gentianaceae |
CE,
RC |
CE,
RC |
CE,
RC |
CE,
RC |
24 |
Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremek. |
Acanthaceae |
- |
B,
SG, SCA |
- |
- |
25 |
Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G.Don |
Apocynaceae |
- |
ERS,SRA |
- |
- |
26 |
Celosia argentea L |
Amaranthaceae |
B,
CE |
CE |
B,
CE |
- |
27 |
Ceropegia rollae Hemadri |
Asclepiadaceae |
RC,
SFD |
- |
- |
RC,
SFD |
28 |
Chlorophytum glaucoides Blatt. |
Anthericaceae |
SRA |
- |
- |
SRA |
29 |
Chlorophytum laxum R.Br. |
Anthericaceae |
- |
SCA |
- |
- |
30 |
Chrysopogon polyphyllus Blatt. & McC. |
poaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
- |
- |
31 |
Commelina benghalensis L. |
Commelinaceae |
SCA,
RC, SFD |
SCA,
RC, SFD |
- |
SCA,
RC, SFD |
32 |
Commelina maculata Edgew. |
Commelinaceae |
- |
- |
SCA |
- |
33 |
Commelina paludosa Blume |
Commelinaceae |
- |
- |
SCA |
- |
34 |
Commelina suffruticosa Blume |
Commelinaceae |
- |
SCA |
- |
- |
35 |
Conyza stricta Willd. |
Asteraceae |
- |
- |
SRA |
- |
36 |
Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. |
Asteraceae |
ERS |
- |
- |
- |
37 |
Crinum latifolium L. var. latifolium |
Amaryllidaceae |
SRA |
- |
SFD |
SFD |
38 |
Crinum pratense Herb. |
Amaryllidaceae |
- |
- |
SCA,
SFD, RC |
- |
39 |
Crotolaria filipes Benth. |
Fabaceae |
- |
SFD |
- |
- |
40 |
Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. |
Zingiberaceae |
SG,SRA |
SG,SRA |
,SRA |
SRA |
41 |
Cyanotis fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth) Schult.f. |
Commelinaceae |
RC,
SCA |
RC,
SCA |
RC,
SCA |
- |
42 |
Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schult.f. var. tuberosa |
Commelinaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
- |
SRA |
43 |
Cyathocline lutea Law ex Wight |
Asteraceae |
SEP,
SCA |
- |
- |
- |
44 |
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. |
poaceae |
SRA |
- |
- |
- |
45 |
Cyperus difformis L. |
Cyperaceae |
SEP,
SP |
- |
- |
- |
46 |
Cyperus rotundus L. |
Cyperaceae |
SRA |
- |
SRA |
SRA |
47 |
Cyperus tenuispica Steud. |
Cyperaceae |
SEP,
SP |
- |
- |
SEP,
SP |
48 |
Delphinium malabaricum (Huth) Munz. |
Ranunculaceae |
CE,SG |
CE,SG |
- |
CE |
49 |
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. |
Fabaceae |
- |
- |
SCA |
- |
50 |
Digitaria stricta |
poaceae |
- |
- |
SFD |
- |
51 |
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop |
Hyacinthaceae |
ERS |
ERS |
- |
- |
52 |
Drosera indica L. |
Droseraceae |
SCA,
SEP |
- |
SCA,
SEP |
SCA,
SEP |
53 |
Elephantopus scaber L. |
Asteraceae |
- |
PTC |
PTC |
PTC |
54 |
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. |
Asteraceae |
- |
SFD |
- |
- |
55 |
Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Steud. |
Poaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
56 |
Eriocaulon achiton Korn |
Eriocaulaceae |
ERS |
- |
- |
ERS |
57 |
Eriocaulon eurypeplon Körn |
Eriocaulaceae |
- |
- |
- |
- |
58 |
Eriocaulon sedgwikii Fyson |
Eriocaulaceae |
SEP,
SP |
SEP,
SP |
- |
SEP,
SP |
59 |
Euphorbia thymifolia L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
- |
ERS |
- |
- |
60 |
Evolvulous alsinoides L. |
Poaceae |
- |
ERS,
SCA |
- |
SRA |
61 |
Exacum lawii C.B. Clarke |
Gentianaceae |
SCA,
SFD |
|
SCA,
SFD |
SCA,
SFD |
62 |
Fimbristylis lawiana (Boeckeler) J.Kern |
Cyperaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
63 |
Fimbristylis tenera Schult |
Cyperaceae |
- |
- |
- |
CR,SFD |
64 |
Gloriosa superba L. |
Colchicaceae |
SCA,SG |
- |
- |
- |
65 |
Glyphochloa forticulata (C.E.C.Fischer) W.D.Clayton |
Poaceae |
SFD |
SFD |
- |
SFD |
66 |
Gynura bicolor (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. |
Asteraceae |
- |
SFD,
CE |
SFD,
CE |
- |
67 |
Habenaria foliosa A. Rich var. foliosa |
Orchidaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
- |
SRA |
68 |
Habenaria grandifloriformis Blatt. & McC. |
Orchidaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
- |
SCA |
69 |
Habenaria heyneana Lindl. |
Orchidaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
70 |
Habenaria longicorniculata J.Graham |
Orchidaceae |
- |
- |
SRA |
- |
71 |
Habenaria panchganensis Santapau
& Kapadia |
Orchidaceae |
- |
- |
- |
RC |
72 |
Habenaria rariflora A.Rich |
Orchidaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
73 |
Hedyotis aspera Heyne ex Roth |
Rubiaceae |
SCA |
- |
- |
- |
74 |
Hedyotis stocksii (Hook.f. & Thomson) R.S.Rao & Hemadri |
Rubiaceae |
- |
Naneghat |
- |
ERS,B |
75 |
Heliotropium indicum L. |
Boraginaceae |
- |
SRA |
- |
- |
76 |
Hypoxis aurea Lour |
Hypoxidaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
77 |
Impatiens acaulis Arn. |
Balsaminaceae |
|
|
CE |
|
78 |
Impatiens balsamina L. |
Balsaminaceae |
SRA,
SFD |
SRA,
SFD |
SRA,
SFD |
SRA,
SFD |
79 |
Impatiens lawii Hook. f. & Thomson |
Balsaminaceae |
SFD,
RC |
- |
SFD,
RC |
SFD,
RC |
80 |
Impatiens minor (DC.) Bennet |
Balsaminaceae |
RC,SG |
- |
RC |
RC |
81 |
Impatiens oppositifolia L. |
Balsaminaceae |
SFD |
SFD |
SFD |
SFD |
82 |
Indigofera dalzelli T. Cooke |
Fabaceae |
- |
- |
SFD,CR |
SFD,CR |
83 |
Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth |
Colchicaceae |
SCA |
- |
- |
- |
84 |
Iphigenia stellata Blatt. |
Colchicaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
- |
85 |
Isachne elegans Dalz. ex Hook.f. |
Poaceae |
SCA |
- |
- |
SCA |
86 |
Jansenella grafithiana (M.II.Hal) Bor |
Poaceae |
- |
- |
SFD |
SFD |
87 |
Jansenella neglecta Yadav, Chivalkar & Gosavi |
Poaceae |
SCA |
- |
- |
SCA |
88 |
Justicia betonica L. |
Acanthaceae |
SRA,
SG |
SRA,
SG |
- |
SRA |
89 |
Justicia glaucea Rottl. |
Acanthaceae |
SRA,
SG |
SRA,
SG |
- |
SRA |
90 |
Lavandula bipinnata Kuntze |
Lamiaceae |
ERS |
ERS |
- |
ERS |
91 |
Linum mysurense B. Heyne ex Benth. |
Linaceae |
SCA |
- |
SFD |
SFD |
92 |
Momordica dioica Wall. |
Cucurbitaceae |
RC,
SFD |
RC,
SFD |
- |
RC,
SFD |
93 |
Murdannia lanuginosa G. Brückn |
Commelinaceae |
- |
- |
- |
RC |
94 |
Murdannia semiteres (Dalzell) Santapau |
Commelinaceae |
ERS |
ERS |
ERS |
ERS |
95 |
Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan |
Commelinaceae |
- |
- |
SFD |
- |
96 |
Murdannia spirata L. |
Commelinaceae |
- |
ERS |
- |
ERS |
97 |
Murdannia versicolor G. Brückn. |
Commelinaceae |
- |
- |
SEP,
SCA |
RC |
98 |
Neanotis calycina (Wall. ex Hook.f.) W.H. Lewis |
Rubiaceae |
SRA,
RC, SFD |
SRA,
RC, SFD |
SRA,
RC, SFD |
SRA,
RC, SFD |
99 |
Neonatis foeitida (Dalzell) W.H. Lewis |
Fabaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA,SRA |
100 |
Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. |
Orchidaceae |
- |
- |
Amba |
- |
101 |
Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. |
Solanaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
- |
SRA |
102 |
Nilgirianthus reticulatus (Stapf) Bremek. |
Acanthaceae |
CE,
SRA |
CE,
SRA |
- |
CE,
SRA |
103 |
Nilgirianthus reticulatus (Stapf) Bremek. |
Acanthaceae |
|
|
|
|
104 |
Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze |
Menyanthaceae |
SP |
- |
- |
SP |
105 |
Panicum antidotale Retz. |
poaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
106 |
Paspalum canarae (Steud.) Veldk. var. canarae |
Poaceae |
ERS,SFD |
ERS |
ERS |
SFD |
107 |
Pimpinella adscendens Dalzell |
Apiaceae |
RC,
CE |
RC,
CE |
RC,
CE |
RC,
CE |
108 |
Pinda concanensis (Dalzell) P.K.Mukh. & Constance |
Apiaceae |
SFD,
SCA |
SFD,
SCA |
- |
SFD,
SCA |
109 |
Pogostemon deccanensis (Panigrahi) |
Lamiaceae |
SP |
SP |
SP |
SP |
110 |
Remusatia vivipara (Roxb) Schott |
Araceae |
SFD,
SG |
- |
SFD |
SFD |
111 |
Rhamphicarpa longiflora Benth. |
Scrophulariaceae |
SP,
SEP |
SP,
SEP |
SP,
SEP |
- |
112 |
Rostellularia diffusa (Nees.) Nees |
Acanthaceae |
- |
CE |
- |
- |
113 |
Rotala densiflora Koehne |
Lythraceae |
SP,
SEP |
SP,
SEP |
SP,
SEP |
SP,
SEP |
114 |
Senecio bombayensis N.P. Balakr. |
Asteraceae |
CE,
RC, SFD |
CE,
RC, SFD |
CE,
RC, SFD |
CE,
RC, SFD |
115 |
Senecio dalzellii C.B. Cl. |
Fabaceae |
|
SFD,SEP |
|
|
116 |
Smithia bigemina Dalzell |
Fabaceae |
SCA,
SFD, RC |
SCA,
SFD, RC |
SCA,
SFD, RC |
SCA,
SFD, RC |
117 |
Smithia hirsuta Dalzell |
Fabaceae |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
SCA |
118 |
Smithia purpurea Hook |
Fabaceae |
SRA,
SEP, RC, |
SRA,
SEP, RC, |
- |
- |
119 |
Smithia racemosa B. Heyne |
Fabaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
SRA |
120 |
Smithia sensitiva Aiton |
Fabaceae |
SRA |
SRA |
- |
SRA |
121 |
Solanum anguivi Lam. |
Solanaceae |
SCA |
- |
SCA |
SCA |
122 |
Sonerila scapigera Dalzell |
Melastomataceae |
B,RC |
B,RC |
B,RC |
B,RC |
123 |
Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don |
Scrophulariaceae |
SP,
SEP, SCA |
SP,
SEP, SCA |
SP,
SEP, SCA |
SP,
SEP, SCA |
124 |
Sphaeranthus indicus L |
Asteraceae |
- |
SCA |
- |
- |
125 |
Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke |
Scrophulariaceae |
SCA |
- |
- |
SCA |
126 |
Swertia densifolia (Griseb.) Kashyapa |
Gentianaceae |
|
|
SRA,
SFD |
|
127 |
Swertia minor Knobl. |
Gentianaceae |
SCA,
SEP |
SCA,
SEP |
SCA,
SEP |
SCA,
SEP |
128 |
Thunbergia laevis Wall. & Nees |
Acanthaceae |
SRA,
SG |
SRA,
SG |
- |
SRA,
SG |
129 |
Torenia indica C.J. Saldanha |
Scrophulariaceae |
PTC |
- |
- |
PTC |
130 |
Utricularia graminifolia Vahl |
Lentibulariaceae |
SP,
SEP |
- |
SEP |
- |
131 |
Utricularia praeteria P. Taylor |
Lentibulariaceae |
- |
- |
- |
SP,
SEP |
132 |
Utricularia purpurescens Grah. |
Lentibulariaceae |
SP,
SEP, B, |
SP,
SEP, B, |
SP,
SEP, B, |
SP,
SEP, B, |
133 |
Utricularia striatula J.E. Sm. |
Lentibulariaceae |
SP,SEP |
SP,SEP |
SP,SEP |
SP,SEP |
134 |
Vigna vexillata (L.) A.Rich |
Fabaceae |
SFD,
RC, SCA |
SFD,
RC, SCA |
SFD,
RC, SCA |
SFD,
RC, SCA |
For figures & images -- click here
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