Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 June 2020 | 12(9): 16099–16109
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4554.12.9.16099-16109
#4554 | Received 10 December 2018 | Final
received 25 May 2020 | Finally accepted 01 June 2020
Phytodiversity of chasmophytic
habitats at Olichuchattam Waterfalls, Kerala, India
Arun Christy 1 & Binu
Thomas 2
1,2 Department of Botany, Centre
for PG studies & Research, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomus),
Devagiri, Kozhikode, Kerala 673008, India.
1 arunchristysebastian03@gmail.com,
2 binuthomasct@gmail.com (corresponding author)
Editor: B. Ravi
Prasad Rao, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ananthapuramu, India. Date
of publication: 26 June 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Christy, A. & B. Thomas (2020). Phytodiversity of chasmophytic
habitats at Olichuchattam Waterfalls, Kerala, India.
Journal of
Threatened Taxa 12(9): 16099–16109. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4554.12.9.16099-16109
Copyright: © Christy & Thomas 2020. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Arun Christy currently working as project fellow at Department of
Botany, Maharaja’s College, Ernakulam and dealing with the lichenological
studies of Kerala. The present article is based on the results of taxonomic
studies carried out by him during his post graduation
studies in Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomus).
Dr. Binu Thomas
currently working as Assistant professor in Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s
College (Autonomus). He has authored three books,
seven book chapters in edited books and more than 100 articles in various
national and international Journals. He also being an active reviewer in
various reputed Journals. His areas of research interests are in angiosperm
taxonomy and phytochemistry.
Author contribution: AC—conducted the field trip, collection,
Identification and compilation of various datas on chasmophytic plants in the study area. BT—planned the
outline of this research work and provided necessary guidelines for the
research.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the Principal, St.
Joseph’s College, Devagiri, Kozhikode. We also
acknowledged the faculty members and Research scholars of Department of Botany,
St. Joseph’s College, Devagiri for their support and
valuable suggestions.
Abstract: The present study was conducted
to analyse the Phytodiversity of Chasmophytic
habitats at Olichuchattam waterfalls, Kerala, India.
The studies on the plants in such special type of habitats are very less. Hence
the present study will help to know more about them. Field exploration and
observations were made, plants were collected, identified and herbarium was
prepared. Analysis of plants and soil
samples from different regions of the study area based on altitudinal variations
was also done. As a result of the study, a total of 120 plant species that
belonging to 49 families and 93 genera were documented. Of these 5 species are
bryophyte, 10 species are pteridophytes and 105 species are angiosperms. The
ornamental potentiality of the plants in the study area was also analysed and
it shows that a total of 47 species have ornamental potentialities. The present
study also highlighted some threatening factors can affect the distribution of
plants in the present study area. The present study highlights that, the rocky
cliffs and crevices serves as an excellent habitat for many interesting plant
groups. The plants in these habitats are very unique and are attractive.The rocky cliffs and crevices represents a good
indicator of rich biodiversity within small areas.
Keywords: Floristic diversity, chasmophytes, Olichuchattam,
invasive species, threats.
INTRODUCTION
Floristic diversity refers to the variety and
variability of plants in a given region.
It refers to the number of types or taxa in a given region or
group. India is one of the 12 mega
diversity centres of the world where the Western Ghats and the Himalayan region
constitute two of the 34 biodiversity hotspots representing a storehouse of
several promising economically important plants (Myers 1990). Species richness and endemism are, however,
not uniformly distributed along the Western Ghats. The southernmost regions which have the most
favourable climatic conditions with high, but not excessive rainfall and short
dry season are the ones with the highest biodiversity and contain the highest
number of endemic species (Pascal et al. 2004).
Southern Western Ghats is one of the two mega endemic centres in Western
Ghats (Nair & Daniel 1986; Nayar 1996). Kerala forms a major species-rich part of
southern Western Ghats harbouring a total of 4,679 flowering plants (Sasidharan 2004).
The vegetation on the surface of rocks or stones are
lithophytes, while the vegetation in the crevices of rocks are chasmophytes (Schimper
1898). Rock crevices form a major
habitat for many plants and host rich biodiversity within a small area. The rocky habitat provides an extremely harsh
physical environment for plants that leads to the development of specialized
plant communities with endemic and habitat specific species. Microhabitats like rock crevices possess
diverse forms of plants, which are mainly seasonal herbs. These habitats differ from each other due to
changes in geographical terrain and soil cover (Porembski
2000).
Chasmophytes are plants rooted in clefts of rocks that are filled
with detritus. In these clefts,
particles of earth conveyed by wind and water accumulate. The amount and rate of accumulation depends
upon the width and situation of the clefts (Davis 1982). The soil thus constituted facilitates plants
to establish and their dead fragments further add to the supply of the
nutritive material in the clefts (Bashan et al. 2002). Rocky cliffs are microhabitats which are
slightly mineral rich and can support the growth and survival of many chasmophytic species.
The occurrence of such habitats ultimately depends on a number of
factors such as geographical location, levels of exposure, high evaporation
rates, nature of soil geology, and water runoff during the rainy season (Danin et al. 1982).
The chasmophytic species growing on rock
crevices and cliffs have to deal with an extremely inhospitable
environment. Therefore, they have
developed several adjustments such as strong roots and reduced life form
structure. This root system supports
them on the cliffs and allows for maximum exploitation of the little water and
nutrients contained in minimal soil.
This habitat is also susceptible to strong winds and full sunlight, as
there is no tall vegetation to protect it from these climatic factors (Binu & Rajendran 2012).
The growth of chasmophytic
plants mainly depends on the availability of water and depth of soil with
nutrients. The number of plants is more
during the wet season than during the dry season. The rocky cliffs and crevices represent a good
indicator of rich biodiversity within small areas (Binu
et al. 2012). The pioneering plants such
as lichens, mosses, ferns & fern allies, small herbs, and grasses grow in
the weathered soil in the rock crevices and loosen the weathered particles of rocks
and add an organic material to the developing soil. These plants trap water and wind-blown soil
and can add soil content in the crevices.
Finally, dead organic matter of such a pioneer community can add more
suitable substrata for the growth of the next community (Roy et al. 1983).
The objectives of the present study were: (i) to document the chasmophytic
diversity of the study area, (ii) to study the various factors affecting the
growth and survival of chasmophytes in the study
area, and (iii) to characterize the chasmophytic
plants in the study area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study area Olichuchattam
is situated in Thiruvambady Panchayath of Kozhikode
District of Kerala State, India (11.435˚N & 76.079˚E; Figure 1, Image
1). Olichuchattam area
comes under the jurisdiction of Vellarimala
Forest Range which is a part of the Western Ghats. Most of the hill range falls in the Meppadi Forest Range of South Wayanad Division, with some
parts falling in the Thamarassery Range of Kozhikode
Division (Image 2–5). Olichuchattam is a waterfall of Iruvanji
River situated in evergreen forests on the way to Vellarimala
Hills. The hill ranges are accessible on
foot from Muthappanpuzha, a small town which is about
50km from Kozhikode. By trekking for
about 4–5 km (approximately three hours) one can explore the Olichuchattam Waterfalls.
By trekking from Olichuchattam to the upper
foothills one can explore different places like Vellarimala,
Vavulmala, and Masthakappara. From the top of Olichuchattam
itself one can clearly notice the changes in vegetation and the changes in the
landscape because of the altitudinal variations. The entire waterfall area and adjacent areas
are full of wet and moist rocky patches especially in the monsoons and become dry
during the summer. This characteristic
habitat enables different plants to survive and adapt in a special way based on
the different seasons.
Data collection and analysis
The current study was based on extensive exploration
and field observations during the period September 2017–February 2018. In the present study an attempt was made to
document and analyse the chasmophytic vegetation of Olichuchattam Waterfall areas of Kozhikode District,
Kerala. The documentation was mainly
based on field observations, discussions with local people as well as
scrutinizing the literature. For
effective and accurate study, the area was visited and analysed in different
climatic conditions in different periods such as rainy season, winter season,
and summer season. The study was mainly
based on the rock crevices in nearby areas of the upper regions of the
waterfalls (1,400m), near the waterfalls (1,250m), and the lower foothills of
the waterfalls (700m) which showed considerable variations in their altitudes
ranging 700–1,400 m.
During the field visits, the plant specimens were
collected to prepare herbariums. The
collected specimens were identified taxonomically with the help of available
floras and literature (Gamble 1915–1936; Sasidharan
2004). The specimens were processed for
the preparation of the herbarium by standard methods. The voucher specimens are deposited in the
Herbaria of PG & Research Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College,
Kozhikode (DEV) for future reference.
Photographs of the study area in different seasons as well as the images
of plants were taken. In addition to
these, suitable maps, tables, figures, and images are given in appropriate
places.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Chasmophytic diversity
Results of the present study reveal 120 species (106
native species and 14 non-native species) belonging to 49 families and 93
genera documented in general (Table 1).
Of these, five species are bryophytes of five families and five
genera. Similarly, in pteridophytes, a
total of 10 species belonging to nine families and nine genera are
recorded. Angiosperms are dominant among
these groups, which include 105 species that belong to 35 families and 79
genera (Table 2, Figure 2).
The dominant native chasmophytic
plant families of the study area are analysed.
The dominant native families are as follows, Poaceae
with 15 species followed by Balsaminaceae with seven
species, Asteraceae and Commelinaceae with six
species each, Malvaceae and Melastomataceae
with five species each, and Scrophulariaceae
represented by three species (Figure 3).
Similarly, the analysis of the dominant native genera
reveals that the genus Impatiens dominates with seven species followed
by Blumea, Cyanotis,
Eriocaulon, and Arundinella
each with three species, respectively (Figure 4).
The analysis of the overall plant habits/growth form
reveals that herbs are the dominant with 100 species, followed by 16 species of
shrubs and four species of climbers.
Distribution pattern of chasmophytic
plants
The diversity and distribution of the recorded 120 chasmophytic plants
in the study area reveals that there are only about 25 species which are
commonly distributed. Fifty-eight
species are uncommon or sporadically distributed and 37 of them are very rarely
occurring in the study area. The high
number of uncommon and rare plants in the study area indicates that they need
very specific ecological conditions.
It was observed the distribution of the plants greatly
vary with respect to the different seasons.
In the monsoon season, the diversity of water loving chasmophytic
plants are seen more. The taxa like Impatiens, Sonerila,
Eriocaulon, Utricularia are
dominant vegetation cover during this period.
While in the summer period, fewer species survive in the area but
grasses and some weedy species are seen thriving well. Also with the variations in the altitudes,
the vegetation changes. Plants like Pellaea falcata, Bolbitis
appendiculata, Impatiens sp., Sonerila
sp., Osbeckia sp., Arundinella sp., Pouzolzia
wightii, Strobilanthes lanatus, Arundina graminifolia, and Themeda
sp. are distributed in high altitude areas (1,200–1,400m).
Ornamental chasmophytes
The present study analysed that 47 species of plants
have ornamental potential. Among the 47
species, four of them are pteridophytes and the rest of the 43 species are
angiosperms. Of the 47 species
distributed in the area, family Balsaminaceae is
dominant with seven species followed by Melastomataceae
and Commelinaceae with five species each, Scrophulariaceae and Convolvulaceae
with three species each. Considering the
ornamental potential of the plants of documented chasmophytes,
32 species have a good looking habit, seven species have attractive foliage and
about 37 species have good looking flowers (Table 3). The colour of the flowers along with good
looking habit of many chasmophytic plants is an
aspect of ornamental potentiality, therefore, such taxa has also been
identified for possible cultivation in rock gardens or rockeries for ornamental
purposes (Binu et al. 2012).
Impatiens for rockery/rock gardening
Balsams or Impatiens are often called ‘Jewel
Weeds’ or ‘Orchid Balsams’. They are
handsome plants bearing curious and variously coloured flowers. Southern Indian species of Impatiens
have a wealth of new and ornamentally desirable flower colours like red, pink,
orange, scarlet, yellow and may have different combinations of these
colours. This beautiful wild flower can
be seen on wet perpendicular rocks or old walls in the hills of high
elevations. The balsam thrives best
during monsoon months (June–September) and the best collections can only be
acquired in the monsoon. Developing a
normal garden for balsams will not be effective because many balsams
(especially scapigerous species) cannot survive in
normal greenhouses. So there is a need
for a special type of gardening for balsams.
Bhaskar (2012) developed special gardening methods for balsams by
providing splash watering, water drippings, and shady conditions which are
essential for developing the Impatiens’ microclimate inside greenhouses
(Image 6).
Invasive chasmophytes
The present study also observed that, there are 14
plant species, which are introduced from various countries as well as different
regions of the world and now they are naturalized in chasmophytic
habitats of the present study area. The
nativity of these species includes central America, South America, tropical
America, and tropical Africa (Sasidharan 2004). These species are invasive in our country and
have established themselves, thereby a threat to other native flora (Table 4).
Soil analysis
Soil samples from different regions of the study area
(three samples were collected based on altitudinal variations such as lower,
middle, higher altitudes) were used for the soil analysis. Soil samples were analysed with the help of
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode as per the methods adopted by
Jackson (1971). The parameters analysed
are pH value, percentage of organic Carbon, amount of Nitrogen, Phosphorous,
and Potassium and the results are presented in Table 5 (Furley
1968).
The soil analysis indicates that the rocky crevices of
the lower foothills (700m) is more nutrient rich than the middle and high
altitude soils. This may be due to the
washing of the soil and nutrients from the high altitude areas to low altitude
areas and the subsequent deposition. The
soil samples of rock crevices are rich in organic carbon and nitrogen due to
the weathering of rocks and the deposition of them into the crevices. The present study also highlights that the
growth pattern of chasmophytes in the rock crevices
mainly depends on the amount of essential elements in the soil of such micro
habitats.
Threats to the chasmophytic
habitats
Generally, habitat loss is due to the anthropogenic
activities. It was noticed that compared
to anthropogenic activities, the present study area was also affected by over
grazing as well as unsustainable utilization of natural resources by natives. It may enhance the depth of threat to the
study especially during peak monsoon period by land slides and flooding of
rivers. Invasive species are the biggest
threat to many native chasmophytes in the study
area. Tourists trekking the Vellarimala cause destruction to the existing ecosystem to
some extent. There are also many study
reports showing that the plants which were distributed earlier in the foothills
of Olichuchattam area are disappearing due to the
frequent land slides during the monsoon (Manudev et al. 2012).
CONCLUSION
Chasmophytes to some extent determine the vegetation of the
valley. The rocky cliffs and crevices
represent a good indicator of rich biodiversity within small areas. The chasmophytic
vegetation hasn’t gained much attention because of the lack of research carried
out in this field and the lack of knowledge about this particular vegetation.
Table 1. Total plant checklist of the study area.
|
|
Botanical name |
Family |
Native/ Non-native |
|
Bryophytes |
|||
|
1 |
Bryum argenteum Hedw. |
Bryaceae |
Native |
|
2 |
Campylopus flexuosus (Hedw.) Brid. |
Dicranaceae |
Native |
|
3 |
Cyathodium cavernarum Kunze |
Targioniaceae |
Native |
|
4 |
Pogonatum aloides (Hedw.) P. Beauv. |
Polytrichaceae |
Native |
|
5 |
Riccia crystallina L. |
Ricciaceae |
Native |
|
Pteridophytes |
|||
|
1 |
Adiantum raddianum C. Presl |
Adiantaceae |
Native |
|
2 |
Bolbitis appendiculata (Willd.) K. Iwats. |
Dryopteridaceae |
Native |
|
3 |
Drynaria quercifolia (L) J. Sm. |
Drynariaceae |
Native |
|
4 |
Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching |
Polypodiaceae |
Native |
|
5 |
Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. |
Lygodiaceae |
Native |
|
6 |
Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex Hook.
& Grev.) Fras. |
Hemionitidaceae |
Native |
|
7 |
Pellaea falcata (R.Br.) Fee |
Pteridaceae |
Native |
|
8 |
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. |
Dennstaedtiaceae |
Native |
|
9 |
Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring |
Selaginellaceae |
Native |
|
10 |
Selaginella tenera (Hook. & Grev.)
Spring |
Selaginellaceae |
Native |
|
Angiosperms |
|||
|
1 |
Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. |
Malvaceae |
Native |
|
2 |
Aeschynomene americana L. |
Fabaceae |
Non-native |
|
3 |
Apluda mutica L. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
4 |
Arundina graminifolia (D. Don) Hochr. |
Orchidaceae |
Native |
|
5 |
Arundinella leptochloa (Nees ex
Steud.) Hook. F. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
6 |
Arundinella metziiHochst. ex Miq. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
7 |
Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex
A. Rich.) Steud. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
8 |
Barleria courtallica Nees |
Acanthaceae |
Native |
|
9 |
Blumea barbata DC. |
Asteraceae |
Native |
|
10 |
Blumea belangeriana DC. |
Asteraceae |
Native |
|
11 |
Blumea membranacea Wall. ex DC. |
Asteraceae |
Native |
|
12 |
Bulbophyllum sterile (Lam.) Suresh |
Orchidaceae |
Native |
|
13 |
Burmannia coelestis D. Don |
Burmanniaceae |
Native |
|
14 |
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br.
ex Roem. & Schult. |
Gentianaceae |
Native |
|
15 |
Canscora perfoliata Lam. |
Gentianaceae |
Native |
|
16 |
Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth.
ex Hook. f. |
Orobanchaceae |
Native |
|
17 |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins. |
Asteraceae |
Non-native |
|
18 |
Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook.f.)
C.E.C. Fisch |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
19 |
Cleome burmannii Wight & Arn. |
Capparaceae |
Native |
|
20 |
Cleome viscosa L. |
Capparaceae |
Native |
|
21 |
Commelina benghalensis L. |
Commelinaceae |
Native |
|
22 |
Commelina clavata Clarke |
Commelinaceae |
Native |
|
23 |
Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Smith |
Zingiberaceae |
Native |
|
24 |
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.
Moore |
Asteraceae |
Native |
|
25 |
Cyanotis arachnoidea Clarke |
Commelinaceae |
Native |
|
26 |
Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don. |
Commelinaceae |
Native |
|
27 |
Cyanotis papilionacea (Burm. f.) Schult. f. |
Commelinaceae |
Native |
|
28 |
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex
Steud.) Wats. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
29 |
Cyperus tenuispica Steud. |
Cyperaceae |
Native |
|
30 |
Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. |
Caryophyllaceae |
Native |
|
31 |
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. |
Asteraceae |
Native |
|
32 |
Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. |
Eriocaulaceae |
Native |
|
33 |
Eriocaulon rhodaeFyson |
Eriocaulaceae |
Native |
|
34 |
Eriocaulon xeranthemum Mart. |
Eriocaulaceae |
Native |
|
35 |
Euphorbia vajraveluiBinoj. & Balakr. |
Euphorbiaceae |
Native |
|
36 |
Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn. |
Fabaceae |
Native |
|
37 |
Glinus oppositifolius
(L.) A. DC. |
Aizoaceae |
Native |
|
38 |
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. |
Apocynaceae |
Native |
|
39 |
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv.
ex Roem. &Schult. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
40 |
Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. |
Malvaceae |
Native |
|
41 |
Homonoia riparia Lour. |
Euphorbiaceae |
Native |
|
42 |
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. |
Lamiaceae |
Non-native |
|
43 |
Impatiens cordata Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
44 |
Impatiens diversifolia Wall. ex Wight & Arn |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
45 |
Impatiens gardneriana Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
46 |
Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
47 |
Impatiens modesta Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
48 |
Impatiens scapiflora Heyne ex Roxb. |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
49 |
Impatiens viscosa Bedd. |
Balsaminaceae |
Native |
|
50 |
Ipomoea deccana Austin |
Convolvulaceae |
Native |
|
51 |
Isachne bourneorum C.E.C. Fisch. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
52 |
Isachneglobosa (Thunb.) O. Ktze. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
53 |
Ischaemum dalzelii Stapf ex Bor |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
54 |
Isodon lophanthoides (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Hara |
Lamiaceae |
Native |
|
55 |
Jansenella griffithiana (C. Muell.) Bor |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
56 |
Justicia japonica Thunb |
Acanthaceae |
Native |
|
57 |
Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. |
Rubiaceae |
Native |
|
58 |
Lantana camara L. |
Verbenaceae |
Non-native |
|
59 |
Leucas ciliata Benth. ex
Wall. |
Lamiaceae |
Native |
|
60 |
Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.)
Pennell |
Scrophulariaceae |
Native |
|
61 |
Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.v. Muell. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Native |
|
62 |
Melastoma malabathricum L. |
Melastomataceae |
Native |
|
63 |
Melochia corchorifolia L. |
Sterculiaceae |
Native |
|
64 |
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. |
Convolvulaceae |
Native |
|
65 |
Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Muell.-Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
Native |
|
66 |
Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sauvalle |
Mimosaceae |
Non-native |
|
67 |
Mimosa pudica L. |
Mimosaceae |
Non-native |
|
68 |
Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. |
Rubiaceae |
Non-native |
|
69 |
Mollugo pentaphylla L. |
Aizoaceae |
Native |
|
70 |
Murdannia semiteres (Dalz.) Sant. |
Commelinaceae |
Native |
|
71 |
Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. |
Meliaceae |
Native |
|
72 |
Oldenlandia corymbosa L. |
Rubiaceae |
Native |
|
73 |
Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume |
Melastomataceae |
Native |
|
74 |
Osbeckia virgata D. Don ex Wight & Arn. |
Melastomataceae |
Native |
|
75 |
Peliosanthes teta Andr. ssp. humilis |
Haemodaraceae |
Native |
|
76 |
Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
77 |
Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth |
Piperaceae |
Non-native |
|
78 |
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. |
Urticaceae |
Non-native |
|
79 |
Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
80 |
Pouzolzia wightii Bennett, |
Urticaceae |
Native |
|
81 |
Rotala malampuzhensis Nair ex Cook |
Lythraceae |
Native |
|
82 |
Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees |
Acanthaceae |
Native |
|
83 |
Scoparia dulcis L. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Non-native |
|
84 |
Sida alnifolia L. |
Malvaceae |
Native |
|
85 |
Smithia gracilis Benth. |
Fabaceae |
Native |
|
86 |
Sonerila rheedei Wight & Arn. |
Melastomataceae |
Native |
|
87 |
Sonerila versicolor Wight var. axillaris |
Melastomataceae |
Native |
|
88 |
Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. |
Rubiaceae |
Non-native |
|
89 |
Spilanthes radicans Jacq. |
Asteraceae |
Non-native |
|
90 |
Stemodia verticillata (Mill.) Sprague |
Scrophulariaceae |
Non-native |
|
91 |
Strobilanthes lanatus Nees |
Acanthaceae |
Native |
|
92 |
Themeda sabarimalayana
Sreek. & V.J. Nair |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
93 |
Themeda triandra Forssk. |
Poaceae |
Native |
|
94 |
Torenia bicolor Dalz. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Native |
|
95 |
Tridax procumbens L. |
Asteraceae |
Non-native |
|
96 |
Triumfetta annua L. |
Tiliaceae |
Native |
|
97 |
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. |
Tiliaceae |
Native |
|
98 |
Urena lobata L ssp. lobata |
Malvaceae |
Native |
|
99 |
Urena lobata L. ssp. sinuata |
Malvaceae |
Native |
|
100 |
Utricularia graminifolia Vahl. |
Lentibulariaceae |
Native |
|
101 |
Utricularia striatula Smith |
Lentibulariaceae |
Native |
|
102 |
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. |
Asteraceae |
Native |
|
103 |
Xenostegia tridentata (L.) Austin & Staples |
Convolvulaceae |
Native |
|
104 |
Xyris indica L. |
Xyridaceae |
Native |
|
105 |
Zeuxine longilabris (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook. f. |
Orchidaceae |
Native |
Table 2. Analysis of chasmophytic
diversity in the study area.
|
Analysis of plant diversity |
Families |
Genera |
Species |
|||||
|
Bryophyta |
5 |
5 |
5 |
|||||
|
Pteridophyta |
9 |
9 |
10 |
|||||
|
Dicotyledons |
Polypetalae |
12 |
26 |
20 |
56 |
*29(3) |
73 |
|
|
Gamopetalae |
11 |
30 |
*26(9) |
|||||
|
Monochlamydae |
3 |
6 |
*4(2) |
|||||
|
Monocotyledons |
9 |
23 |
32 |
|||||
|
Total |
49 |
93 |
120 |
|||||
*—native
species | ()—Non-native species
Table 3. List of ornamental chasmophytes
from the Olichuchattam area of Kozhikode District,
Kerala.
|
|
Botanical name |
Family |
Ornamental characters |
|
Pteridophytes |
|||
|
1. |
Adiantum raddianum C. Presl |
Adiantaceae |
Good looking habit and attractive foliage. |
|
2. |
Bolbitis appendiculata (Willd.) K.Iwats. |
Dryopteridaceae |
Good looking habit and attractive foliage. |
|
3. |
Pellaea falcata (R.Br.) |
Pteridaceae |
Good looking habit and attractive foliage. |
|
4. |
Selaginellainvolvens (Sw.) Spring |
Selaginellaceae |
Good looking habit and attractive foliage. |
|
Angiosperms |
|||
|
1. |
Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
|
Malvaceae |
Attractive large pink coloured flowers |
|
2. |
Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr. |
Orchidaceae |
Good looking pink/purple coloured flowers also have
a good looking habit |
|
3. |
Barleria courtallica Nees |
Acanthaceae |
Attractive light blue coloured flowers. |
|
4. |
Burmannia coelestis D.Don. |
Burmanniaceae |
Attractive light pink coloured flowers. |
|
5. |
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br.
ex Roem. & Schult. |
Gentianaceae |
Good looking habit |
|
6. |
Canscora perfoliata Lam. |
Gentianaceae |
Beautiful cream coloured flowers |
|
7. |
Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth.
ex Hook.f. |
Orobanchaceae |
Attractive purple-white tinged-yellow coloured
flowers |
|
8. |
Commelina benghalensis L. |
Commelinaceae |
Beautiful blue flowers with good looking habit. |
|
9. |
Commelina clavata Clarke |
Commelinaceae |
Good looking blue coloured flowers with attractive
creeping plant habit. |
|
10. |
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore |
Asteraceae |
Good looking yellow-orange coloured flowers and also
have attractive pappus hairs. |
|
11. |
Cyanotis arachnoidea Clarke |
Commelinaceae |
Attractive blue coloured flowers and also have
attractive habit |
|
12. |
Cyanotis papilionacea (Burm.f.) Schult. |
Commelinaceae |
Attractive blue coloured flowers and nice habit. |
|
13. |
Eriocaulon quinquangulare
L. |
Eriocaulaceae |
Attractive plant habit with good looking white
headed flowers. |
|
14. |
Eriocaulon xeranthemum Mart. |
Eriocaulaceae |
Attractive plant habit with good looking white
headed flowers. |
|
15. |
Euphorbia vajravelui Binoj. & Balakr. |
Euphorbiaceae |
Good looking plant habit. |
|
16. |
Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn. |
Fabaceae |
Good looking habit, with delicate flowers and
persistent fimbriate bracts |
|
17. |
Impatiens cordata Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
A good habit and pink coloured flowers. |
|
18. |
Impatiens diversifolia Wall. ex Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
Attractive pink coloured flowers. |
|
19. |
Impatiens gardneriana Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
Attractive plants with a good habit and pink
coloured flowers. |
|
20. |
Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. |
Balsaminaceae |
Small attractive white coloured flowers |
|
21. |
Impatiens modesta Wight |
Balsaminaceae |
Attractive plants with rose coloured flowers. |
|
22. |
Impatiens scapiflora Heyne ex Roxb. |
Balsaminaceae |
Attractive habit and light rose coloured flowers. |
|
23. |
Impatiens viscosa Bedd. |
Balsaminaceae |
Attractive small pink flowers and an attractive
habit. |
|
24. |
Ipomoea deccana Austin |
Convolvulaceae |
Good looking purple coloured flowers and attractive
habit. |
|
25. |
Leucas ciliata Benth. ex Wall. |
Lamiaceae |
Good looking white flowers. |
|
26. |
Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.)
Pennell var. ciliata |
Scrophulariaceae |
Good looking purple flowers with attractive habit. |
|
27. |
Lindernia crustacea (L.) Muell. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Good looking purple flowers. |
|
28. |
Melastoma malabathricum
L. |
Melastomataceae |
Attractive large rose coloured flowers. |
|
29. |
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. |
Convolvulaceae |
Attractive white coloured flowers. |
|
30. |
Murdannia semiteres (Dalz.) Sant. |
Commelinaceae |
Attractive plant habit |
|
31. |
Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. |
Meliaceae |
Good looking white coloured flowers. |
|
32. |
Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume var. aspera |
Melastomataceae |
Attractive large pink coloured flowers and a good
looking habit. |
|
33. |
Osbeckia virgata D. Don ex Wight & Arn. |
Melastomataceae |
Attractive large pink coloured flowers with good
looking habit. |
|
34. |
Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth |
Poaceae |
Attractive plant habit and nice foliage |
|
35. |
Rotala malampuzhensis
Nair ex Cook |
Lythraceae |
Attractive plant habit with good looking foliage. |
|
36. |
Smithia gracilis Benth. |
Fabaceae |
Attractive yellow flowers and a good looking habit. |
|
37. |
Sonerila rheedei Wight & Arn. |
Melastomataceae |
Attractive pink coloured flowers |
|
38. |
Sonerila versicolor Wight var. axillaris
(Wight) Gamble |
Melastomataceae |
Attractive pink coloured flowers with good looking
habit which have leaves with white dots on it. |
|
39. |
Torenia bicolor Dalz. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Attractive dark purple-yellow coloured flowers. |
|
40. |
Utricularia graminifolia Vahl. |
Lentibulariaceae |
Attractive plants with a good habit and blue
coloured flowers. |
|
41. |
Utricularia striatula Smith |
Lentibulariaceae |
Attractive plants with pink-yellow coloured flowers. |
|
42. |
Xenostegia tridentata (L.) Austin & Staples |
Convolvulaceae |
Attractive cream to yellow coloured flowers. |
|
43. |
Xyris indica L. |
Xyridaceae |
Good looking plants with beautiful yellow flowers. |
Table 4. List of invasive chasmophytes
of study area.
|
|
Botanical names |
Family |
Nativity |
|
1. |
Aeschynomene americana L. |
Fabaceae |
Central America |
|
2. |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King |
Asteraceae |
Central America |
|
3. |
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. |
Lamiaceae |
Central America |
|
4. |
Lantana camara L. |
Verbenaceae |
Tropical America |
|
5. |
Mimosa diplotricha Wight ex Sanv.
|
Mimosaceae |
Tropical America |
|
6. |
Mimosa pudica L. |
Mimosaceae |
South America |
|
7. |
Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. |
Rubiaceae |
Tropical Africa |
|
8. |
Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth. |
Piperaceae |
Tropical America |
|
9. |
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. |
Urticaceae |
South America |
|
10. |
Scoparia dulcis L. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Tropical America |
|
11. |
Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. |
Rubiaceae |
Tropical Africa |
|
12. |
Spilanthes radicans Jacq. |
Asteraceae |
Tropical America |
|
13. |
Stemodia verticillata Mill. |
Scrophulariaceae |
Tropical America |
|
14. |
Tridax procumbens L. |
Asteraceae |
Tropical America |
Table 5. Analysis of soil samples from chasmophytic habitats.
|
Altitudes |
pH |
Organic carbon (%) |
Nitrogen (mg/kg) |
Phosphorous (mg/kg) |
Potassium (mg/kg) |
|
Lower altitude (700m) |
5.00 |
5.95% |
390 |
5.1 |
172 |
|
Middle altitude (1,250m) |
4.71 |
5.90% |
380 |
4.1 |
145 |
|
Higher altitude (1,400m) |
4.52 |
5.85% |
370 |
3.8 |
138 |
For figures & images - - click here
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