Summer diet
composition of the Common Leopard Panthera pardus (Carnivora: Felidae)
in Nepal
Achyut Aryal 1 & Brigitte Kreigenhofer 2
1,2 Ecology & Conservation Group, Institute of Natural
Sciences, Massey University, New Zealand
1 The Biodiversity Research and Training Forum (BRTF), Nepal
Email:
1 a.aryal@massey.ac.nz, savefauna@yahoo.com
Date of publication
(online): 26 November 2009
Date of publication (print): 26
November 2009
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) |
0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Weihong Ji
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2287
Received 19 August 2009
Final received 30 October 2009
Finally accepted 01 November 2009
Citation: Aryal, A. &
B. Kreigenhofer (2009). Summer diet composition of the Common Leopard Panthera
pardus (Carnivora: Felidae) in Nepal. Journal of Threatened Taxa1(11): 562-566.
Copyright: © Achyut Aryal
& Brigitte Kreigenhofer 2009. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for
non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit
to the authors and the source of publication.
Author Details: Achyut Aryal is a PhD student at Massey
University, New Zealand. He is working on conservation biology of Blue Sheep
and Snow Leopard in Nepal for his PhD dissertation.
Brigitte
Kreigenhoferis MSc student at Massey University, New Zealand.
Author Contribution: AA is main
author. BK assisted in editing.
Acknowledgments:We
are grateful to our supervisors Prof. Dr. Ilse Storch, Prof. Dr. Dieter R. Pelz
(Faculty of Forest and Environment Sciences, Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Germany) and Dr. S. Sathaykumar
(WII, India); for their impressive tutelage, constructive criticism and
intellectual support to complete the study. We would like to acknowledge Dr. Som Ale for his support and Department
of National Park and Wildlife Conservation for directing and suggesting in
several ways to getting permission and their encouragement and Dr. Rinjan
Shrestha (WWF, Nepal) for his encouragement and support to field study. We would like to acknowledge Snow Leopard
Conservation Grants Program for granting financial support to this research
work and Wildlife Institute of India for providing training on carnivores’ diet
analysis.
Abstract: The Common Leopard Panthera pardus is one of the most widely
distributed of all big cats. It is a threatened species throughout its range
due to the degradation of natural habitat, poaching and persecution as a killer
of humans and livestock. The purpose of this study was to determine the
composition of the Common Leopard diet in the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR)
of Nepal. Among prey species Barking
Deer (Muntiacus muntjak) were observed most frequently (18%) in leopard
scats, while Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur) were observed less frequently
(6%).
Keywords: Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, diet composition,
leopard, predators, prey.
For Figure &
Tables – click here
Introduction
The
Common Leopard Panthera pardus is one of the most widely distributed of
all big cats (Bailey 1993), occupying an array of habitats in Asia and
Africa. In south Asia, it is found in
Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Indochina (Prater 1993; Shrestha
1997). As a habitat generalist species
(Bailey 1993; Maan & Chaudary 2000), the leopard can live and thrive in
almost all types of habitats including dense forest, rock and scrub (Prater
1993), grasslands and even on mountain cliffs, where sufficient hideouts and
prey species are available (Bailey 1993). Its behaviour varies according to the habitat it occupies (Seidensticker
et al. 1990; Bailey 1993; Daniel 1996). These leopards have such a diverse and wide distribution due to their
highly adaptable hunting and feeding practices, and their solitary nature. They can easily survive in human dominated
areas by changing their dietary habits to include livestock, dogs and humans
(Gugginsberg 1975; Sedeinsticker et al. 1990; Daniel 1996; Chauhan & Goyal
2001).
The
Leopard is categorised as a Near Threatened species by the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species (Henschel et al. 2008). It is threatened throughout its range due to habitat degradation,
poaching for its valuable skin and bone, and persecution as a killer of humans
and livestock. The ecology of the
leopard in south Asia is not fully understood. However, some studies have been
carried out in the region (Eisenber & Lokhart 1972; Sunquiist 1983;
Seidensticker et al. 1990). The ecology
and behaviour of this elusive species cannot be fully understood without knowing
how leopards respond to various ecological resources and disturbance
scenarios. Therefore, this study was
carried out to understand the dietary composition of Common Leopards in the
Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve of Nepal. Scat samples were collected during the
summer season (March to June) of 2008. Blue Sheep Pseudois nayaur is the main legally hunted species in
the reserve and is also assumed to be the main prey species of Common Leopards
and other predator species as well, such as the Snow Leopard. Blue Sheep are assumed as the main prey
species of Snow Leopards and other predators within the high altitude biomes of
Eurasia. They are a species that are
trophy hunted in DHR and the conservation of Blue Sheep is of international and
national concern given its keystone prey status. Therefore, the main objective of this study
was to determine the proportion of the Common Leopard diet that consists of
Blue Sheep during the summer.
Methods and Materials
Study Area: This study was
carried out in the Phagune and Barse blocks of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve of
Nepal (Fig. 1). This reserve, which is
divided into seven blocks, lies in the Baglung District in the Dhaulagiri
Himalaya of western Nepal (23°30’-28°50’N & 82°50’-83°15’E). It covers an area of 1325km2with altitude
ranging from 2,850m to 5,500m. (Wegge 1979).
Phagune: In the west
along the trail north from Uttar Ganga at Taka across the Phagune ridge at
approximately 3800m; down to Pelma khola, there turning east upstream along
Pelma and Gustung kholas to an about 3.2-4.0km east sheep ridge east of
tributary, along east side of the ridge to the Dhorpatan trail intersection
than following trail south to Dhorpatan and back down along Uttar Ganga.
Barse: Along the eastern part of
Phagune block, southwards along the Kharka trail to Dhorpatan, eastwards along
Uttar Ganga to Barse Mount trail take-off, following trail along the ridge
northwards across pass to eastern tributary of Gustung Khola, along the
tributary and Gustung down back to Phagune block boundary (Wegge 1979).
Climate: The reserve is located
in front of a moderately high saddle connecting the high Dhaulagiri and
Hiuchuli. It is also shielded by several
lekhs (high altitude grassland) South of Uttar Ganga. The sheep area therefore receives less precipitation than others areas
of the Nepal midlands (Stainton 1972). Wegge (1976) extrapolates the annual precipitation to somewhat less than
1000m.
Vegetation: The area is
characterized by many plant species of the drier climatic belt to the north,
but remnants of the more humid zone are also present, giving the area a mixed
vegetation cover. Falling in a
transition zone, the dry northern elements are more pronounced at higher
altitudes and on south-easterly aspects. In more moist and shaded habitats mixed
hardwoods form well-developed strands at lower elevation, yielding first to FirAbies spectabilis and then to birch/rhododendron at higher
altitudes. The upper northern slopes are
densely covered with Birch Betula utilis and Rhododendron Rhododendron
campanulatum to the tree line, between 3,050m and 3,660m; below is a belt
of Fir and Hemlock Tsuga dumosa, which gives way to a rich
mixed-hardwood forest next to the river. The southern slopes, on the contrary, in a wide belt from approximately
3,500m to 2,440m, consist of a very sparse scrub forest of Oak Quercus
semecarpifolia, interspersed with isolated Blue Pine Pinus excelsatrees and occasionally Rhododendron Rhododendron arboreum.
Fauna: Dhorpatan is noted for its Blue
Sheep population. Other ungulates
include Goral Nemorhaedus goral, Himalayan Tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus,
and Wild Boar Sus scrofa (particularly common in the upper coniferous
zone, especially in the Gurbad and Uttar Ganga catchments), Himalayan Musk DeerMoschus chrysogaster (widely distributed), Serow Capricornis sumatraensisand Indian Muntjac Muntiacus muntjak. The Leopard is common and widely distributed up to altitudes of
4,420m. Other predators include Lynx Felis
lynx (known to occur in the Upper Seng Valley). Wild Dog Cuon alpinus, Red Fox Vulpes
vulpes, Wolf Canis lupus and Snow Leopard Uncia uncia are
occasional visitors to the area. Himalayan Black Bear Selenarctos thibetanus is common in forested
areas. Red Panda Ailurus fulgensis reported to be fairly common in the upper forests of the Lower Seng and
Upper Bakre valleys (Wegge 1976; Fox 1985).
Common Leopard scat survey: Sign (scats,
pugmarks, scraping and scent spray) surveys were carried out in the study area
to distinguish different predators’ scats and to estimate scat density. The signs of different predator species were
identified on basis of their size, colour, pugmarks and other features (Table
1). Wild Dog and Lynx scats were avoided
because herders and livestock were downhill, and we did not find evidence of
Lynx or Wild Dogs in the Barse and Phagune blocks. Furthermore, it was assumed that scats found
above 4500m in altitude were left by Snow Leopards and/or Wolves. Common
Leopard scats were collected below 4500m. All together, 147 Common Leopard scats were collected from the field for
diet analysis. The survey covered 265km2 of Barse and Phagune block of
study area.
Scat collection and analysis methods: Eighty-one
existing human and livestock trails, each 1.5km in length, were used as
transect lines for the collection of the faecal material of various
predators. A total of 121km was sampled
with the highest elevation reached being 4,500m. Following scats collection, a standard
micro-histological method was used to identify prey species through the hair
samples found in the Common Leopard scat. Species identification was accomplished by comparing the hairs from the
faecal samples to reference hair samples for each of the potential prey species
in the area. Specifically, the surface
scale patterns of the guard hairs were compared. Scats of different predators were identified
based on size, colour, location, local knowledge and microscopic structure of
the medulla and cuticle structure of the hairs.
Scat samples were prepared according to
the methods described by Mukherjee et al. (1994). The hair samples were first washed in hot
water and then thoroughly air dried. They were subsequently cleared in ether for one hour to remove wax
deposits and any remaining moisture. Finally, the hairs were passed through Xylol for 24 hours and mounted on
permanent slides with DPX to allow for the analysis of the medulla structure of
the hairs. A gelatine solution was used
to prepare slides for the analysis of the cuticle structure of hairs and
cuticle scales were observed using impression techniques. The slides were observed under a light
microscope (400x) and digital photos were taken so that the cuticle and medulla
patterns could be observed. The main
emphasis was placed on blue sheep hair so that the predators of this species
could be identified. At least 20 hair
samples were taken from each faecal sample for analysis and to allow for the
detection of multiple prey species (Mukherjee et al. 1994). The prey residue composition of the predator
scats was extrapolated in terms of the prey frequency of occurrence in the scat
samples (Fi), calculated by equation-I (Pikunov & Korkishko 1992; Karanth
& Sunquist 1995; Mizutani 1999; Ramakrishan et at. 1999).
Fi= (ni/N)100 equation (I)
Where ni is the number of scats where a
given ith prey species residue occurs and N is the total number of all scat
samples.
Results
Dietary composition of Common Leopard: The frequency of
occurrence of different prey species in the scat of common leopards in this
region of Nepal is found in Table 2. There
was no significant difference between the frequency of occurrence of different
prey species and there was a positive correlation between each prey species and
the Common Leopard diet (c2 = 0.889, df = 16, p >
0.05; R2= 0.84). Barking
Deer was the most frequently occurring
species (18%) while only 6% of their diet consisted of Blue Sheep. The Common
Leopards in this region also consumed Wild Boar, Himalayan Serow,Pika (Ochotona roylei), Musk Deer, and livestock, which made up
approximately 4% of the collected faecal material (Table 2). Other food items, such as vegetation, soil,
and stones, made up 9% of the total diet composition.
Discussion
Wegge (1976) originally reported Snow
Leopards as a possible permanent resident in the northern reaches of the DHR
(Wegge 1979; Wilson 1981). Local people
reported that within the last 4 years snow leopards have been frequently
visiting the northern part of the DHR, i.e. the Barse (Mansun area and
northeastern site of Barse Duri), Gustung, Seng and Dhogadi blocks. These cats also visit the border of that lies
between the Phagune and Barse blocks, which has been confirmed by both old
(>5 week) and fresh Snow Leopard scats found in this area. We were able to collect very low number of
Snow Leopard scats in Mansun area and in Barse Duri. It is confirmed that snow leopards are not
permanent residents in the Barse and Phagune blocks of DHR. However, there may be permanent snow leopard
residents in the Gustung, Seng, and Dhogadi blocks of DHR but detailed studies
should be carried out to confirm this. Common Leopards frequently visited areas up to 4500m altitude. Therefore, it there may be food competition
between Common Leopards, Snow Leopards and Wolves, which also inhabit these
areas of high altitude.
It is evident that small mammals are
very important in the Common Leopard diet as this study shows that about 10% of
the diet of these Common Leopards consisted of Pika and 16% consisted of Wild
Boars. Smaller mammals are an important
component of predator diets (Zhirjakov 1990) and even more so when it’s major
or preferred prey is not readily available. The summer scats of Common Leopards
mainly consisted of barking deer. Very
little information is available on the importance of alternative prey in a
predator’s diet (Shaw 1977). The role of alternate prey becomes very important
when the predator’s major prey species is not readily available. In such a
situation, alternate prey, in the form of smaller animals (e.g. Pika and Wild
Boars), become a very important component in the Common Leopard’s diet. This is obvious from Common Leopard food
habitat, in the summer the Barking Deer was the major prey species of Common
Leopards. However, Barking Deer move to
dense forest area and may form groups as an anti-predatory strategy. Pikas, which were abundant during the summer,
then become the major prey species for various predators in the DHR. This dietary shift during the summer
considerably reduces predation pressure on the other prey species. Another possible explanation for the increase
in small mammal population was the decreasing the population of Wolves, which
was assumed to be the major predator of these mammals. Therefore, the predation strategy of the
Common Leopards shifts towards smaller mammals in the DHR.
Six percent of the Common Leopards’ diet
consisted of Blue Sheep. It thus seems
that Common Leopards occasionally kill Blue Sheep during summer. In the continued predation pattern of above
predators in the study area, if all the domestic prey is to be removed then the
role of the alternate prey in the form of smaller animals will be of greater
importance. The predation on smaller
animals, especially Pika and Wild Boar, were so heavy that they were
exterminated from some sites of Barse and Phagune blocks. Snow Leopards, Wolves, Common Leopards and
Red Foxes are competitors and depend on almost the same type of prey species in
the DHR. Therefore, the DHR management
has to consider managing these species more scientifically and at the same time
the Blue Sheep hunting quota should be determined through the scientific
evaluation. The abundance and availability of alternate prey species will help
maintain the Blue Sheep population on a sustainable basis.
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