Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 February 2021 | 13(2): 17780–17806
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3883.13.2.17780-17806
#3883 | Received 03 May 2020 | Final received
30 December 2020 | Finally accepted 09 February 2021
Observations on the flowering
plant diversity of Madayippara, a southern Indian lateritic plateau from
Kerala, India
C. Pramod 1 & A.K.
Pradeep 2
1 Department of
Botany, Government Brennen College, Dharmadam P.O., Kannur, Kerala 670106,
India.
2 Department of
Botany, University of Calicut, Calicut University P.O., Malappuram, Kerala,
673635, India.
1 cpramod4@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 akpradeep1@uoc.ac.in
Editor: Mandar
Nilkanth Datar, MACS-Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, India. Date of
publication: 26 February 2021 (online & print)
Citation:
Pramod, C. & A.K. Pradeep (2021). Observations on the flowering plant diversity of
Madayippara, a southern Indian lateritic plateau from Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(2): 17780–17806. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3883.13.2.17780-17806
Copyright: © Pramod & Pradeep 2021. Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this
article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the
source of publication.
Funding: The present
study did not receive any funding from any agency.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: C. Pramod is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Botany, Government Brennen College, Thalassery. His area of interest is
Angiosperm taxonomy and floristics. A.K.
Pradeep is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Botany, University of Calicut. His area of interest is the taxonomy of
flowering plants.
Author contribution: CP and AKP designed and conceptualized the study. CP
collected specimens and data for analysis, CP and AKP performed analysis of
data. CP and AKP prepared the first draft of the manuscript and equally
contributed in further editions.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to the heads of the
Department, University of Calicut, Kerala and the Department of Botany,
Government Brennen College, Kerala, for the facilities provided for the study.
Abstract: Northern Kerala of southern India is characterized by
widely spread lateritic plateaus which provide an extremely harsh physical
environment for life leading to the development of specialized plant
communities with a large number of endemic and habitat specific species. Madayippara, a midland lateritic plateau
located in the Kannur District of northern Kerala is an icon of rich floristic diversity
and endemism. The plateau forms a number
of microhabitats due to the difference in geographic terrain and soil cover,
thus forming a complex of habitats with diverse forms of plants, mainly
ephemeral herbs. Out of the 636
flowering plant taxa recorded from the microhabitats of the plateau, within a
limited area of 3.65km2, 160 (c. 25%) are endemics. Most of the endemic species occur in
specialized microhabitats. The plateau is the type locality of 11 taxa. Lateritic plateaus of southern India, which
are associated with characteristic and rich biodiversity, are now under varied
types of anthropogenic threats such as large scale mining for bricks and clay,
and they need urgent attention for conservation of the biodiversity.
Keywords:
Biodiversity, conservation, endemism, floristic diversity, microhabitats,
plateau.
Introduction
In India, the hard crusts of laterite are mainly found
on the western coast, from Dapoli in Ratnagiri in Maharashtra to Malappuram
District in Kerala, and also on the Deccan Plateau (Balakrishnan et al.
2011). Distribution of laterite in
Kerala, is mostly confined to an elevation of less than 600m, forming low flat
topped ridges and hills, between the foothills of the Western Ghats and the
Arabian Sea, mainly from Malappuram to Kasaragod (Varghese & Byju
1993). In the geographical documentation
of the Government of Kerala these landscapes are marked as ‘wastelands’
(Anonymous 2019). The laterite hills are
the most imposing feature of northern Kerala, which are extremely threatened
both in terms of topography and biodiversity (Muraleedharan 2011). These plateaus are characterized by extremely
harsh environment such as high temperature and lack of moisture content in the
summer, leading to the development of unique vegetation, many of which show
special adaptation to the environment.
These severe conditions play a decisive role in the development of
seasonal vegetation, where most of the plant species complete their life cycle
during the monsoon period. When compared
with granitic inselbergs (granitic rock outcrops), the vegetation and flora of
lateritic plateaus has many unique peculiarities. The present study is an effort to record the
floristic diversity and endemism of the Madayippara lateritic hillock in Kannur
District of Kerala.
Study Area
Madayippara, a good representative of the southern
Indian midland lateritic plateaus, is located in Madayi Panchayath, near
Payangadi Town in Kannur District of Kerala, southern India. The plateau covers an area of 3.65km2,
between 12.01–12.05 0N and 75.23–75.27 0E, at an altitude
of about 50m from the mean sea level (Fig. 1; Image 1–3). The climatic conditions vary from hot dry to
warm humid in different seasons, viz., pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon
(June–November), and post-monsoon (December–February); these together with
edaphic factors account for the development of characteristic vegetation, as
observed by Muller (2007).
Methods
Intensive field visits were carried out at Madayippara
lateritic plateau covering all seasons during the period 2008–2017 to document
floristic diversity. Different
microhabitats on the plateau such as seasonal pools, soil covered areas, rocky
surfaces, and tree associated vegetation along the valleys were surveyed
repeatedly at different seasons and specimens were collected for laboratory
studies and for the preparation of voucher specimens. Photographs of plants and habitats were taken
using Nikon Coolpix L110 and Olympus C-7070 cameras. The voucher specimens were prepared following
the wet method (Fosberg & Sachet 1965).
The specimens were pressed in blotting paper, dried in a hot air oven,
mounted on standard size, hand-made herbarium mount boards using a synthetic
gum (Fevicol SH) and labeled and deposited at Calicut University Herbarium
(CALI), duplicates of which are deposited at the herbarium of the Government
Brennen College, Thalassery, Kerala. The
specimens collected for laboratory studies were worked out using a LEICA M80,
ZEISS Stemi DV4 and LABOMED CSM2 microscopes and identified using pertinent
floras and relevant revisions and monographs; and by comparison with the
specimens available at Calicut University Herbarium (CALI), Madras Herbarium
(MH) and with the images in the Kew Herbarium (K) Catalogue (http://apps.kew.org/herbcat/navigator.do). Some of the specimens were referred to
concerned experts in India and abroad for the confirmation of
identification. The literature on
phytogeography and endemism were referred to assess the distribution and
endemism of each species. Conservation status
of each species was checked with the available assessed data as per the IUCN
Red list Categories and Criteria Version 3.1 (IUCN 2012). Endemism of taxa were recorded based on
previous publications such as Sasidharan (2004) and online databases such as World
Checklist of Selected Plant Families (http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/home.do). Botanical names were updated using online
databases like The International Plant Names Index (IPNI) (http://ipni.org/ipni/plantnamesearchpage.do)
and World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/home.do)
of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew.
Results and Discussion
The vegetation of Madayippara lateritic plateau is
divided into four broad categories with the characteristic flora associated
with each of them (Jacobi et. al. 2007, modified). The plant species in the microhabitats are
adapted to sustain in the adverse environmental conditions, such as seasonal
drought, high temperature and nutrient scarcity. It has been observed that there is an overlap
between most of the species in microhabitats with varying degree of dominance,
as stated by Watve (2013), however, some species are always restricted to a
particular microhabitat.
Bhattarai et al. (2012) in a study on the mesoscale
distributions of endemic, rare, or locally important plant species on the
plateau habitats and its escarpments, assessed the hydrological and edaphic
parameters of seasonal plateau microhabitats on the Kas Plateau in
Maharashtra. They found that almost
two-thirds of over hundred phytogeographically important species occur on the
plateau top. Since botanically critical
plateau habitats are generally small, dependent on seasonal moisture of
monsoon, and determined by drainage-related parameters that are altered by
anthropogenic activities, they are highly threatened. Using the Kas region as a model lateritic
system, they assessed its significant flora and habitats at two scales:
mesoscale distributions in major ecological zones of the plateau and its
subtending slopes, and microscale distributions on the plateau in seasonal
habitats defined by hydrogeomorphic parameters such as moisture content,
seasonal water retention capacity, profile of the soil, topographic variation,
depth and texture of soil, and micro-elevational gradients. They identified 11 microhabitat types on the
plateau top, that support varieties of plant species of phytogeographic
significance during the monsoon. The
plateau consists of a mosaic of floristically different habitats determined by
hydrogeomorphic factors; for many of these habitats, the occupied area is very
small in extent and seasonally ephemeral.
In a similar floristic analysis conducted in 10
threatened high altitude lateritic plateau ecosystems including Kas in the
southwestern Maharashtra part of Western Ghats, Lekhak & Yadav (2012)
recorded the presence of 361 taxa of herbaceous plants. Out of the reported 67 endemic species from
the study area, 39 are restricted to lateritic plateaus only. They also identified 11 microhabitat types
that support distinct plant communities depending primarily on the availability
of soil and moisture. The plant
communities of these habitats are usually edaphically controlled and show adaptation
for water accumulation, such as succulence and poikilohydry, carnivory in
response to the lack of nutrients in the soil and the presence of underground
organs to overcome extreme temperature during summer.
The studies discussed above are from high altitude
lateritic plateaus of the northern Western Ghats, and the area surveyed is
large compared to the present study, however, climatic and geomorphologic
characteristics of the microhabitats are found to be important for the
distribution of endemic species in all cases. In a small area, strong endemic
component in the flora is associated with seasonal moisture availability. These endemics occur in a variety of
ephemeral microhabitats associated with edaphic features of the plateau
(Bhattarai et al. 2012). In the present
study, microhabitats are included in broader categories, as more emphasis is
given to the floristic documentation of the entire plateau habitats and its
escarpments. As tree cover and scrub
patches on and around the plateau sustain more number of plant species, they
support more number of endemic species.
(1) Exposed rock surfaces and crevices (RC): Laterite rock surfaces form one of the most important
habitats that support a number of species adapted to this habitat. The micro environment of the lateritic rock
surface and crevices are extremely different from that of the surrounding soil
covered areas. The rock surfaces are
characterized by very low moisture content, high thermal variation, very low
organic carbon content and less availability of nutrients. The crevices and fissures on the rocks show
the presence of little soil. A few of
the plant species growing on exposed rock surfaces are desiccation tolerant.
(2) Seasonal ponds and small ephemeral pools (SP): During rainy seasons small and shallow ephemeral pools
and some large ponds are formed on the plateau.
These support a large number of hydrophytes including endemic species
showing various degrees of rarity. The
seasonal pools in the plateau are varying in their area, depth, soil cover and
soil texture. The pools are just
depressions on the plateau, either on laterite rock or on soil covered
areas. If it is on rocks, thin layers of
soil, rich in organic matter has been noted, which support the vegetation. The pools get dried up in post-monsoon
periods and remain dry till pre-monsoon.
They become water logged with the onset of southwest monsoon and dry up
after the retreat of the northeast monsoon.
Water in the seasonal pools is subjected to extreme diurnal changes in
temperature due to the high surface to volume ratio (Pramod 2015). Germination of ephemeral vegetation in the
seasonal pools is noticed after the first shower in May end or early June every
year. A series of species are noticed
progressively until they become dry in the months of October–November. This series include species such as Geissaspis
cristata, G. tenella, Isachne veldkampii, Murdannia
ochracea, M. semiteres, Rotala malabarica, R. malampuzhensis,
Schoenoplectiella articulata, S. lateriflora, Blyxa aubertii,
B. octandra, Nymphoides krishnakesara, Echinochloa
colona, Glyphochloa acuminata, Utricularia cecilii, U.
graminifolia, Drosera indica, Fimbristylis tenera, F.
aestivalis, F. ferruginea, Eriocaulon cuspidatum, E.
reductum, E. eurypeplon, Coelachne madayensis, Neanotis
subtilis, Dopatrium junceum, Oryza rufipogon, Rhamphicarpa
longiflora, Wiesneria triandra, Hydrilla verticillata, Monochoria
vaginalis, and Lindernia hyssopioides. Almost all species are herbaceous and most of
them complete their life cycle in a short period as the pools dry up.
(3) Soil covered areas and grassy plains and slopes
(SC): Surrounding the rocky surfaces are
the areas with soil cover of varied thickness from less than 1cm to more 1m, and on the southeastern part of
the plateau grassy slopes with thick soil cover occur. The vegetation of the soil covered areas
varies slightly depending on soil thickness.
The areas with low soil thickness, which usually hold higher moisture
content in the early monsoon are characterized by ephemeral flush vegetation,
that are later replaced by grass and sedge species.
(4) Tree cover and scrub patches (TS): The upper flat terrain of the plateau, which is almost
devoid of thick vegetation, is surrounded by tree vegetation of varying characteristics,
from scrub jungles to thick semi evergreen forests. These forest patches are highly diverse with
respect to species composition and the presence of endemic and rare elements. Though the top of the plateau is devoid of
continuous tree cover, some isolated tree species are found. There are small scrub patches with short
trees, shrubs and herbs. Madayikkavu is
a sacred grove covering an area of 0.005km2 with vegetation mainly
composed of trees, shrubs, and climbers.
A total of 636 taxa of flowering plants, under 110
families, 406 genera, and 631 species were documented from the plateau. They are listed in the Table 1, with the
families arranged according to APG system of classification (APG IV 2016). The genera and species are arranged in
alphabetical order under respective families and genera. The area of the
plateau is very small (3.65km2), representing less than 0.01% of
Kannur District, but it harbors about 59% of the flora of Kannur District
(Ramachandran & Nair 1988). The
immense diversity of flowering plants in Madayippara is due to the occurrence
of diverse types of microhabitats and the ecological factors acting on
them. The occurrence of a high
percentage of endemic species belonging to diverse families in a small area
indicates the complex nature of the habitat.
Eleven new taxa were discovered by different workers
from this plateau, since 1990 (Table 2).
They are Rotala malabarica (Pradeep et al., 1990), Nymphoides
krishnakesara (Joseph & Sivarajan, 1990), Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep
& Sivarajan 1991), Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan &
Singh, 1992), Eriocaulon madayiparense (Swapna et al. 2012), Lindernia
madayiparensis (Ratheesh Narayanan et al., 2012), Coelachne
madayensis (Pramod et al. 2012), Parasopubia hofmannii (Pradeep
& Pramod, 2013), Parasopubia hofmannii var. albiflora
(Pradeep & Pramod, 2013), Fimbristylis pokkudaniana (Sunil
et al., 2016), and Chrysopogon narayaniae (Sunil
et al., 2017). Two recently
described species from southern India, viz., Eriocaulon gopalakrishnanum
K.Rashmi & G.Krishnak. and Lindernia tamilnadensis M.G.Prasad &
Sunojk. also occur in this plateau.
Recently, a number of new species were described from similar lateritic
habitats of northern Kerala (Image 4 & 5) and plateaus of the Konkan region
(Ansari et al. 1982; Bhat & Nagendran 1983; Nair et al. 1983; Yadav &
Janarthanam 1994; Raju 1985; Potdar et al. 2004; Gad & Janarthanam 2007;
Raj & Sivadasan 2008; Yadav et al. 2008, 2009, 2010; Malpure &
Yadav 2009; Prabhugaonkar et al. 2009; Shimpale & Yadav 2010; Nandikar
& Gurav 2011; Kambale et al. 2012; Potdar & Yadav 2012; Prasad &
Raveendran 2013a&b; Prasad et al. 2012; Shahina & Nampy 2014; Gaikwad
et al. 2014; Biju et al. 2016a,b,c; Darshetkar et al. 2017; Bokil et al.
2020). Most of the species described
from such habitats belong to diverse families.
This shows that complex and diverse microhabitats of the plateaus
support rich and varied flora.
The substrata of the plateau are highly variable
ranging from the deep soil profile of grasslands in the valleys to the
ultra-thin film of humus on the exposed rock surfaces. In rock surfaces, the vegetation is very
distinct with the predominance of drought tolerant species. The fine dust and humus accumulated in the
vermiform tubes and cavities of the laterite rock provide nutrients to the
supporting herbaceous vegetation.
Species such as Lepidagathis keralensis, Euphorbia deccanensis,
and Polycarpaea corymbosa occur on open lateritic surfaces mostly rooted
in the humus rich crevices of the laterite rocks. The plateau is subjected to high degree of
seasonal variation in the vegetation and flora.
The most important factor that determines the vegetation is the soil moisture
content. In the pre-monsoon period, the
open plateau is looking almost barren with few dried grass species of the
post-monsoon period. The germination of
the seasonal vegetation starts with the summer shower in May and continues
later at the onset of south-west monsoon in June. The early monsoon is dominated by ephemeral flush
vegetation, which is taken over later by grass and sedge species at the end and
continued in the post monsoon period.
The monsoon months (June–November) shows the peak of flowering of
species, due to the appearance of ephemeral species, grasses and sedges in the
open plateau, as shown in Figure 1. In
the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon months, flowering is dominated by woody
species in the scrub patches and tree cover.
Rarity and endemism
Western Ghats harbours around 1,600 endemic plant
species (Nayar 1996), which are documented by many workers, but the diversity
and endemism of midland lateritic hillocks and wetlands are seldom
documented. Out of the 636 taxa recorded
from Madayippara, 160 (c. 25%) are endemics (Table 1). Since the maximum number of plant species
were recorded in the tree cover and scrub patches, they hold highest number of
endemic species also. Many of the
endemic species occur in specialized microhabitats. For example, species such as Lepidagathis
keralensis is restricted to hard lateritic rocks with extreme xeric
environment; Coelachne madayensis occur in seasonal pools in well
exposed sunny locations with submerged foliage and emergent panicles; Euphorbia
deccanensis grows with its roots firmly attached to the humus-rich small cavities
and fissures of laterite rocks and species of Utricularia in seasonal
pools or shallow soil areas with high moisture content. The high diversity and endemism of the
plateaus is attributted to be a general phenomenon and is explained in
different plateaus in the Western Ghats region by various authors (Joshi &
Janarthanam 2004; Porembski & Watve 2005; Bhattarai et al. 2012; Lekhak
& Yadav 2012). Of the 10 taxa
described from the study area by different authors, five species, viz., Rotala
malabarica, Justicia ekakusuma, Fimbristylis pokkudaniana,
Coelachne madayensis, and Chrysopogon narayaniae are
endemic to this plateau.
The microhabitats, viz., soil covered areas and grassy
plains and slopes (SC) and tree cover and scrub patches (TS) hold largest
numbers of species and endemics, since they occupy bulk of the total habitat
with favorable environmental conditions.
Though the number of species including endemics are comparatively less
in the other two microhabitats, viz., exposed rock surfaces and crevices (RC)
and seasonal ponds and small ephemeral pools (SP), their percentage of endemics
is very high (Table 3).
Out of the available 120 species, as per IUCN ver. 3
(IUCN 2012), a total of 14 species falls under different IUCN threat
categories. Seven species, viz., Dimeria
hohenackeri, Limnopoa meeboldii, Syzygium caryophyllatum, Hopea
ponga, Lindernia manilaliana, Utricularia cecilii, and Nymphoides
krishnakesara are endangered. The
species Eriocaulon kolhapurense, Pterocarpus marsupium, Santalum
album, and Ixora malabarica are Vulnerable. The species Isachne veldkampii and
Rotala malabarica are Critically Endangered and the species Nothopegia
heyneana is Near Threatened. Most of
the endemic species occurring on the plateau are not yet assessed for the
conservation status, many of which are narrow endemics.
Threats and Conservation
The highly specialized habitats and rare biodiversity
of the coastal lateritic plateaus and hills, parallel to the Western Ghats,
have been neglected by scientists and policymakers, until recently. The laterite biodiversity is an unexplored
treasure that is being endangered due to a multitude of anthropogenic
activities. The lateritic plateus of
northern Kerala, together with their rich flora and microhabitats are subjected
to varied types of pressures such as large scale clay and brick mining,
construction works, land filling, seasonal fire, tourism, waste dumping,
together with biotic pressures such as invasion of exotic weeds and grazing. As pointed out by Muraleedharan (2011),
degradation of lateritic plateaus results in the simultaneous destruction of
atleast three ecosystems: lateritic plateaus, valleys and wetlands, which may
eventually adversely affect ground water availability.
The discovery of many plant species and high degree of
endemism made Madayippara lateritic plateau a ‘micro hot spot’ for
conservation. The conservation efforts
in the southern Western Ghats region are mostly restricted to the forested areas,
totally neglecting the biodiversity rich lateritic plateaus. The rich biodiversity together with the
threats associated with the area (Image 5) demands the need for conserving the
area on a war footing. Priority of
conservation should be given to endemic species which are short-lived and
habitat specific; otherwise, they will be lost forever. The high conservation value of lateritic
plateus of southwestern India has been already recognized (Watve & Thakur
2006; Lekhak & Yadav 2012; Bhattarai et al. 2012; Watve 2013). The open areas with herbaceous vegetation and
grasses are of importance to bird populations including a large number of rare
and migratory species, as they provide better visibility for being vigilant to
predators and free movement for food gathering (Desai & Shanbhag 2012). Few afforestation efforts, that are in
progress in the plateau are to be discouraged, as the tree species might affect
the native herbaceous species because of their dense canopy and allelopathic
effect.
The present study recommends conservation of this
plateau and similar habitats of northern Kerala, in a similar way as proposed
by Chandran et al. (2012), to declare Bhatkal and Mugali laterite
plateaus of Uttara Kannada of Karnataka State under ‘Conservation
Reserves’. The Government should
formulate strict rules for the restriction of mining and construction
activities in the laterite areas. There
is a need to create greater awareness of the importance of laterite hills and
their biodiversity among the local community, tourists and policy and decision
makers. Extensive floristic studies in
similar habitats of northern Kerala are very likely to yield many more new and
interesting species.
Conclusion
Lateritic plateaus are unique due to the nature of
substratum and the extreme environmental conditions. Various microhabitats
support a rich floral diversity with a large number of rare and endemic
species. Though Madayippara represents an area of less than 0.01% of the total
area documented in the Flora of Cannanore District, it harbors about 59% represented
in the district flora. The species
richness of this area is contributed by the presence of many specialized
microhabitats and associated flora.
Various microclimatic conditions play a collective role in the
development of a particular plant community in a microhabitat. Madayippara lateritic plateau, which is the
type locality of 10 taxa, and home for many endemic and threatened species, is
highly threatened and urgent measures are to be taken for its conservation. Any slight disturbance in the micro
ecosystems can easily take away a number of short-lived herbaceous species
which cannot be easily conserved outside its natural habitat. For the conservation of the rich diversity
and microhabitats of the plateau, in situ conservation of the entire
habitat is the only answer as ex situ conservation measures cannot
provide complex microclimatic requirements artificially.
Table 1. A list of flowering plant taxa recorded from
the Madayippara Lateritic Plateau.
|
Family |
Taxa |
Microhabitat |
Flowering |
Endemism |
IUCN RL
Status |
|
PIPERACEAE |
Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth |
TS |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Piper argyrophyllum Miq. |
TS |
Jul–Feb |
WG & SL |
|
|
|
P. longum
L. |
TS |
Aug–Jan |
|
|
|
ARISTOLOCHIACEAE |
Aristolochia indica L. |
TS |
Jul–Mar |
|
|
|
MAGNOLIACEAE |
Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre |
TS |
Mar–Jul |
|
|
|
ANNONACEAE |
Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Finet & Gagnep. |
TS |
Oct–May |
|
|
|
|
Polyalthia korinti (Dunal) Thwaites |
TS |
Apr–Jun |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
Uvaria narum (Dunal) Blume |
TS |
Nov–Jun |
SI & SL |
|
|
LAURACEAE |
Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees var. semecarpifolia |
TS |
Feb–Apr |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
SWI & SL |
|
|
|
Litsea deccanensis Gamble |
TS |
Nov–Dec |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
L. glutinosa
(Lour.) C.B.Rob. |
TS |
Apr–May |
|
|
|
ARACEAE |
Amorphophallus hohenackeri (Schott) Engl. & Gehrm. |
TS |
Jun–Aug |
WG |
|
|
|
A.
paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson |
TS |
May–Jun |
|
LC |
|
|
Ariopsis peltata Nimmo |
TS |
Jun–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Arisaema neglectum Schott |
TS |
Apr–Jul |
WG |
|
|
|
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. |
SC |
Dec–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott |
SC |
May–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
Cryptocoryne spiralis (Retz.) Fisch. ex Wydler |
SC |
Oct–Apr |
I |
|
|
|
Pistia stratiotes L. |
SP |
Oct–Mar |
|
LC |
|
|
Pothos scandens L. |
TS |
Oct–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott |
TS |
Aug–Sep |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Theriophonum infaustum N.E.Br. |
TS |
Jul–Sep |
SWG |
|
|
ALISMATACEAE |
Wiesneria triandra (Dalzell) Micheli |
SP |
Aug–Nov |
PI |
LC |
|
HYDROCHARITACEAE |
Blyxa aubertii Rich. |
SP |
Jun–Sep |
|
LC |
|
|
B. octandra (Roxb.) Planch. ex Thwaites |
SP |
Jun–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle |
SP |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
BURMANNIACEAE |
Burmannia coelestis D.Don |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
|
LC |
|
DIOSCOREACEAE |
Dioscorea bulbifera L. |
TS |
Sep–Oct |
|
|
|
|
D. pentaphylla
L. |
TS |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
D. wallichii
Hook.f. |
TS |
Oct–Nov |
|
LC |
|
PANDANACEAE |
Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze |
TS |
Jul–Nov |
|
LC |
|
COLCHICACEAE |
Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth |
TS |
Jul–Sep |
|
|
|
SMILACACEAE |
Smilax zeylanica L. |
TS |
Jul–Jan |
|
|
|
ORCHIDACEAE |
Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Bulbophyllum rosemarianum C.S.Kumar, P.C.S.Kumar & Saleem |
TS |
Jan–Mar |
SWG |
|
|
|
Crepidium resupinatum (G.Forst.) Szlach. |
TS |
Jul–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Habenaria diphylla (Nimmo) Dalzell |
SC |
Sep–Nov |
|
|
|
HYPOXIDACEAE |
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
AMARYLLIDACEAE |
Crinum viviparum (Lam.) R.Ansari & V.J.Nair |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
I & SL |
LC |
|
|
Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Pancratium triflorum Roxb. |
SC |
Mar–May |
I & SL |
|
|
ASPARAGACEAE |
Chlorophytum nimmonii (Graham) Dalzell |
TS |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Borassus flabellifer L. |
TS |
Mar–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Calamus metzianus Schltdl. |
TS |
Nov–Jun |
WG |
|
|
|
Caryota urens L. |
TS |
Jan–Apr |
|
LC |
|
COMMELINACEAE |
Commelina diffusa Burm.f. |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
|
LC |
|
|
C. kurzii
C.B.Clarke |
TS |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.Don ex Sweet |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. burmanniana
Wight |
RC |
Aug–Dec |
WG |
LC |
|
|
C. cristata
(L.) D.Don |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
Murdannia dimorpha (Dalzell) G.Brückn. |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
M. ochracea
(Dalzell) G.Brückn. |
SP |
Aug–Sep |
PI |
|
|
|
M. semiteres
(Dalzell) Sant. |
SC/RC |
Aug–Dec |
PI |
LC |
|
|
M. spirata
(L.) G.Brückn. |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
|
LC |
|
PONTEDERIACEAE |
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C.Presl |
SP |
Jul–Nov |
|
LC |
|
COSTACEAE |
Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta |
TS |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
ZINGIBERACEAE |
Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. |
TS/SC |
Apr–May |
|
|
|
|
C. cannanorensis
R.Ansari, V.J.Nair & N.C.Nair |
TS |
May–Jun |
SWG |
|
|
|
C. longa
L. |
TS |
Sep–Oct |
|
|
|
|
C. zedoaria
(Christm.) Roscoe |
TS |
Apr–May |
I |
|
|
|
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. |
TS |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
XYRIDACEAE |
Xyris pauciflora Willd. |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
|
LC |
|
ERIOCAULACEAE |
Eriocaulon cuspidatum Dalzell |
SP |
Aug–Jan |
WG |
LC |
|
|
E. eurypeplon
Körn. |
SP |
Jul–Dec |
PI |
LC |
|
|
E. gopalakrishnanum
K.Rashmi & G. Krishnak. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
E. kolhapurense
S.P. Gaikwad, Sardesai & S.R. Yadav |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
WG |
VU |
|
|
E. reductum
Ruhland |
SP |
Sep–Mar |
WG |
|
|
|
E. xeranthemum
Mart. |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
|
LC |
|
CYPERACEAE |
Bulbostylis densa (Wall.) Hand.-Mazz. |
SC |
Sep–Nov |
|
LC |
|
|
Cyperus amabilis Vahl |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. compressus
L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. cyperinus
(Retz.) Suringar |
SC |
Jun–Aug |
|
|
|
|
C. difformis
L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. iria
L. |
SC |
Nov–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. javanicus
Houtt. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
C. rotundus
subsp. retzii (Nees) Kuk. |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. rotundus
L. subsp. rotundus |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. surinamensis
Rottb. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Eleocharis atropurpurea (Retz.) J.Presl & C.Presl |
SC |
Nov–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
E. dulcis
(Burm.f.) Trin. ex Hensch. |
SP |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl |
SC |
Jan–Apr |
|
|
|
|
F. argentea
(Rottb.) Vahl |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
F. dichotoma subsp. podocarpa (Nees & Meyen) T.Koyama |
SC |
Mar–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
F. dipsacea (Rottb.) C.B.Clarke |
SC |
Jan–May |
|
LC |
|
|
F. ferruginea (L.) Vahl |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
F. ovata (Burn.f.) J.Kern |
SC |
Aug–Mar |
|
LC |
|
|
F. pokkudaniana Sunil, Ratheesh & Sivad. |
SP |
Aug–Sep |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
F. quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth |
SP |
Oct–Nov |
|
LC |
|
|
F. schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
F. tenera Roem. &
Schult.var. tenera |
SC |
Jul–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. |
SC |
Oct–Mar |
|
LC |
|
|
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. var. brevifolia |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
LC |
|
|
K. brevifolia var. stellulata (Valck.Sur.) S.S.Hooper |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
LC |
|
|
K. bulbosa P.Beauv. |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Lipocarpha squarrosa (L.) Goetgh. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Pycreus malabaricus C.B.Clarke |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
PI |
|
|
|
P. polystachyos (Rottb.)
P.Beauv. subsp. polystachyos |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
P. pumilus (L.) Nees |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
P. stramineus C.B.Clarke |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Rhynchospora wightiana (Nees) Steud. |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Schoenoplectiella articulata (L.) Lye |
SP |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. lateriflora (J.F.Gmel.) Lye |
SP |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. var. lithosperma |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
POACEAE |
Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Apocopis mangalorensis (Hochst. ex Steud.) Henrard |
SC |
Oct–Feb |
PI |
|
|
|
Arundinella cannanorica V.J.Nair, Sreek. & N.C.Nair |
RC |
Oct–Dec |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
A. ciliata (Roxb.) Nees ex Miq. |
SC |
Oct–Nov |
PI |
|
|
|
A. pumila (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Steud. |
SC/RC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
A. purpurea Hochst. ex Steud. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
SI |
|
|
|
A. setosa Trin. |
SC |
May–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss |
TS |
Jul–Feb |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf |
SC |
Mar–Sep |
|
LC |
|
|
B. subquadripara (Trin.) Hitchc. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A.Camus |
SC |
Oct–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Chloris barbata Sw. |
SC |
Mar–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Chrysopogon narayaniae Sunil, Ratheesh & Sivad. |
RC |
Oct–Dec |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
C. tadulingamii Sreek., V.J.
Nair & N.C.Nair |
RC |
Oct–Dec |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
Coelachne madayensis Pramod & Pradeep |
SP |
Jul–Sep |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
Coix lacryma-jobi L. |
SC |
Jul–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. |
SC |
Mar–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.) A.Camus |
SC |
Sep–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Dimeria copeana Sreek., V.J.Nair & N.C.Nair |
SC |
Dec–Mar |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
D. hohenackeri Hochst. ex Miq. |
SC/RC |
Oct–Dec |
PI |
EN |
|
|
D. stapfiana C.E.Hubb. ex Pilg. |
SC/RC |
Oct–Dec |
SI |
|
|
|
D. thwaitesii Hack. in A.DC. & C.DC. |
SC/RC |
Sep–Dec |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link |
SP |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
E. atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
E. gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
|
E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henrard |
SC |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Glyphochloa acuminata (Hack.) Clayton var. acuminata |
SC/SP/RC |
Oct–Feb |
PI |
|
|
|
G. acuminata var. woodrowii (Bor) Clayton |
RC |
Oct–Dec |
SI |
|
|
|
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
I. miliacea Roth |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
I. veldkampii K.G.Bhat & Nagendran |
SP |
Aug–Oct |
SI |
CR |
|
|
Ischaemum barbatum Retz. |
SP |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
|
I. cannanorense Sreek., V.J.Nair & N.C.Nair |
RC |
Sep–Dec |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
I. ciliare Retz. |
SC |
Oct–Nov |
|
|
|
|
I. keralense Sreek., V.J.Nair & N.C.Nair |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
I. lanatum Ravi, N.Mohanan & Shaju |
TS |
Oct–Jan |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
I. rangacharianum C.E.C.Fisch. |
SP |
Sep–Dec |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
Limnopoa meeboldii (C.E.C.Fisch.) C.E.Hubb. |
SP |
Sep–Nov |
SI (K) |
EN |
|
|
Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka |
SC |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Oplismenus burmanni (Retz.) P.Beauv. |
TS |
Sep–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Oryza rufipogon Griff. |
SP |
Sep–Mar |
|
LC |
|
|
O. sativa L. |
SC |
Sep–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Panicum repens L. |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
|
LC |
|
|
Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf |
SC |
Jun–Mar |
|
LC |
|
|
Paspalum conjugatum P.J.Bergius |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
P. scrobiculatum L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
P. polystachion (L.) Schult. |
SC |
Apr–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Pseudanthistiria umbellata (Hack.) Hook.f. |
TS |
Nov–Dec |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf |
SP |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Sporobolus diandrus (Retz.) P.Beauv. |
SC |
Mar–Sep |
|
|
|
|
S. pilifer (Trin.) Kunth |
SC/RC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Themeda triandra Forssk. |
SC |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
MENISPERMACEAE |
Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. |
TS |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson |
TS |
Apr–May |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels |
TS |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. |
TS |
Jan–Jun |
|
|
|
|
T. sinensis (Lour.) Merr. |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
|
|
|
RANUNCULACEAE |
Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. |
TS |
Oct–Apr |
|
|
|
CRASSULACEAE |
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz |
TS |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
VITACEAE |
Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. |
TS |
May–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Cayratia tenuifolia (Wight & Arn.) Gagnep. |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
|
C. trifolia (L.) Domin |
RC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Cissus discolor Blume |
TS |
Jul–Jan |
|
|
|
|
C. heyneana Steud. |
TS |
Apr–Jun |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
C. latifolia Lam. |
TS |
Jun–Sep |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
C. repens Lam. |
TS |
Nov–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. |
TS |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
FABACEAE:
Papilionoideae |
Abrus precatorius L. |
TS |
Oct–May |
|
|
|
|
A. pulchellus Wall. ex Thwaites |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Aeschynomene americana L. |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
A. indica L. |
SP |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. |
SC/RC |
Sep–Jan |
|
LC |
|
|
A. vaginalis (L.) DC. var. vaginalis |
SC |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. |
SC |
Dec–Mar |
|
|
|
|
C. scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars |
SC |
Sep–Jan |
|
LC |
|
|
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC. |
TS |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Centrosema molle Benth. |
TS |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Clitoria ternatea L. var. ternatea |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Crotalaria evolvuloides Wight ex Wight & Arn. |
SC |
Oct–Feb |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
C. pallida Aiton var.
pallida |
SC |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
|
C. quinquefolia L. |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
C. verrucosa L. |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabb. var. horrida |
TS |
Sep–Jan |
SWG |
|
|
|
Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. |
TS |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
D. scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv. |
SC |
Dec–Jul |
|
|
|
|
D. triflorum (L.) DC. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
D. triquetrum (L.) DC. |
TS |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Erythrina variegata L. |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
|
LC |
|
|
Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn. |
SP |
Jul–Sep |
|
LC |
|
|
G. tenella Benth. var.
tenella |
SP/RC |
Aug–Nov |
WG |
LC |
|
|
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. |
TS |
Mar–May |
|
|
|
|
Indigofera hirsuta L. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
I. tinctoria L. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
I. trifoliata L. |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. var. pruriens |
TS |
Oct–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre |
TS |
Apr–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. |
TS |
Sep–Oct |
I & SL |
VU |
|
|
Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.Wight |
SP |
Jul–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Smithia conferta Sm. |
SC |
Nov–Feb |
|
|
|
|
S. salsuginea Hance |
SC/ TS |
Oct–Nov |
PI |
|
|
|
S. sensitiva Aiton |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston |
SC |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
|
S.guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Zornia gibbosa Span. |
SC |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
FABACEAE: Caesalpinioideae |
Bauhinia purpurea L. |
TS |
Sep–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
B. scandens var. anguina (Roxb.) Ohashi |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. |
TS |
Jan–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Cassia fistula L. |
TS |
Feb–May |
|
|
|
|
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
C. nictitans subsp. patellaria var. glabrata (Vogel)
H.S.Irwin & Barneby |
SC/RC |
Aug–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf. |
TS |
Feb–Jul |
|
LC |
|
|
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K.Heyne |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Senna alata (L.) Roxb. |
SC |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
|
S. hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. occidentalis (L.) Link |
SC/ TS |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
S. tora (L.) Roxb. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Tamarindus indica L. |
TS |
Sep–Apr |
|
|
|
FABACEAE: Mimosoideae |
Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn. ex Benth. |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
A. caesia (L.) Willd. |
TS |
Oct–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
A. mangium Willd. |
TS |
Jul–Feb |
|
|
|
|
A. pennata (L.) Willd. |
TS |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Adenanthera pavonina L. |
TS |
Jan–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. |
TS |
Mar–Jul |
|
|
|
|
A. lebbeck (L.) Benth. |
TS |
Mar–Dec |
|
|
|
|
A. saman (Jacq.) F.Muell. |
TS |
Mar–May |
|
|
|
|
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. |
SC |
Oct–Jan |
I & SL |
LC |
|
|
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit |
TS |
Nov–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Mimosa diplotricha C.Wight ex
Sauvalle var. diplotricha |
SC |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
|
M. pudica L. |
SC |
Jul–Jan |
|
LC |
|
POLYGALACEAE |
Polygala elongata Klein ex Willd. |
SC/RC |
Jul–Jan |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Salomonia ciliata (L.) DC. |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
RHAMNACEAE |
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. |
TS |
Feb–Jul |
|
|
|
|
Z. oenopolia (L.) Mill. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Z. rugosa Lam. |
TS |
Nov–May |
|
|
|
ULMACEAE |
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. |
TS |
Dec–Mar |
|
|
|
CANNABACEAE |
Celtis timorensis Span. |
TS |
Jan–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume |
TS |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
MORACEAE |
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. |
TS |
Nov–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. |
TS |
Dec–Apr |
I & SL |
|
|
|
F. benghalensis L. var.
benghalensis |
TS |
May–Aug |
I |
|
|
|
F. callosa Willd. |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
|
|
|
|
F. exasperata Vahl |
TS |
Feb–Apr |
|
|
|
|
F. heterophylla L.f. |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
F. hispida L.f. |
TS |
Sep–May |
|
|
|
|
F. racemosa L. |
TS |
Feb–May |
|
|
|
|
F. religiosa L. |
TS |
Nov–Feb |
|
|
|
|
F. tinctoria subsp. parasitica (Koen. ex Willd.) Corner |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Morus alba L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
URTICACEAE |
Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew |
SC |
Aug–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. |
SC/RC |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
CUCURBITACEAE |
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt |
SC |
Dec–Apr |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Cucumis sativus f. hardwickii (Royle) W.J.de Wilde &
Duyfjes |
TS |
Nov–May |
|
|
|
|
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey |
TS |
Nov–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi |
TS |
Jul–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Trichosanthes cucumerina L. |
TS |
Dec–May |
|
|
|
|
T. tricuspidata var. tomentosa (Heyne ex C.B.Clarke) Kumari |
TS |
Dec–Jan |
SWI & SL |
|
|
BEGONIACEAE |
Begonia crenata Dryand. |
TS |
Aug–Nov |
WG |
|
|
CELASTRACEAE |
Glyptopetalum zeylanicum Thwaites |
TS |
Jul–Dec |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Loeseneriella arnottiana (Wight) A.C.Sm. |
TS |
Feb–Mar |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
Salacia chinensis L. |
TS |
Feb–Mar |
|
|
|
|
S. fruticosa Heyne ex M.A.Lawson |
TS |
Feb–May |
WG |
|
|
CONNARACEAE |
Connarus paniculatus Roxb. |
TS |
Oct–May |
|
|
|
|
Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston |
TS |
Dec–Aug |
|
|
|
OXALIDACEAE |
Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
RHIZOPHORACEAE |
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. |
TS |
Oct–Apr |
|
|
|
EUPHORBIACEAE |
Agrostistachys indica Dalzell |
TS |
Feb–Mar |
C & PI |
|
|
|
Croton caudatus Geiseler |
TS |
Mar–May |
|
|
|
|
Euphorbia deccanensis V.S.Raju |
RC |
Jul–Dec |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
E. heterophylla L. |
SC |
Jun–Aug |
|
|
|
|
E. hirta L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
E. thymifolia L. |
SC |
Nov–May |
|
|
|
|
E. tithymaloides L. |
SC |
Apr–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Falconeria insignis Royle |
TS |
Jan–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Müll.-Arg. |
TS |
Jan–Feb |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.-Arg. |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
M. repandus (Rottler) Müll.–Arg. |
TS |
Nov–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.-Arg. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Tragia involucrata L. |
SC/TS |
Jul–Dec |
I & SL |
|
|
OCHNACEAE |
Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
PHYLLANTHACEAE |
Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. |
TS |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
A. montanum Blume |
TS |
Dec–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. |
TS |
Dec–Jun |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.Fisch. |
TS |
Feb–Aug |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Bridelia retusa (L.) A.Juss. |
TS |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
B. stipularis (L.) Blume |
TS |
Dec–Feb |
PI |
|
|
|
Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. |
TS |
Jun–Sep |
|
|
|
|
F. virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle |
SC |
Mar–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Phyllanthus airy-shawii Jean F.Brunel & J.P.Roux |
SC |
Jul–Jan |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
P. amarus Schumach. & Thonn. |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
|
P. emblica L. |
TS |
Jul–Feb |
|
|
|
|
P. reticulatus Poir. |
SC/TS |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
P. urinaria L. |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
|
P. virgatus var. virgatus G.Forst. |
SC/RC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. |
TS |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. quadrangularis (Willd.) Müll.-Arg. |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
MALPIGHIACEAE |
Aspidopterys canarensis Dalzell |
TS |
Feb–May |
WG |
|
|
PASSIFLORACEAE |
Passiflora foetida L. var.
foetida |
TS |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
P. foetida var. hispida (DC. ex Triana & Planch.)
Killip |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Turnera ulmifolia L. |
TS |
May–Dec |
|
|
|
SALICACEAE |
Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
VIOLACEAE |
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
ACHARIACEAE |
Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken |
TS |
Dec–May |
WG |
|
|
LINACEAE |
Hugonia mystax L. |
TS |
Aug–Oct |
I & SL |
|
|
CLUSIACEAE |
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N.Robson var. gummi-gutta |
TS |
Jan–Sep |
SI & SL |
|
|
COMBRETACEAE |
Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Lam. ex Poir. |
TS |
Jan–May |
|
|
|
|
Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps |
TS |
Jul–Mar |
|
|
|
|
C. latifolium Blume |
TS |
Dec–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. |
TS |
Dec–Jan |
|
|
|
|
T. catappa L. |
TS |
Mar–Jan |
|
|
|
|
T. paniculata Roth |
TS |
Aug–Feb |
PI |
|
|
LYTHRACEAE |
Ammannia baccifera L. subsp. baccifera |
SP |
Sep–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. |
TS |
Mar–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Lawsonia inermis L. |
TS |
Dec–May |
|
|
|
|
Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne |
SP |
Jul–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
R. macrandra Koehne |
SP |
Sep–Jan |
WG |
LC |
|
|
R. malabarica Pradeep, K.T.Joseph & Sivar. |
SP |
Jul–Sep |
SI (K) |
CR |
|
|
R. malampuzhensis R.V.Nair ex C.D.K.Cook |
SP |
Jul–Sep |
WG |
LC |
|
|
R. rosea(Poir.) C.D.K.Cook |
SP |
Aug–Feb |
|
LC |
|
ONAGRACEAE |
Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell |
SP/SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
MYRTACEAE |
Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
|
EN |
|
|
S. cumini (L.) Skeels |
TS |
Dec–Apr |
|
|
|
|
S. jambos (L.) Alston |
TS |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
MELASTOMATACEAE |
Melastoma malabathricum L. |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Memecylon randerianum S.M.Almeida & M.R.Almeida |
TS |
Feb–May |
SWG |
|
|
|
M. umbellatum Burm.f. |
TS/SC |
Feb–Mar |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Osbeckia muralis Naudin |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
WG |
|
|
ANACARDIACEAE |
Anacardium occidentale L. |
TS |
Nov–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. |
TS |
Jan–Jul |
SWG |
|
|
|
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. |
TS |
Jan–May |
|
|
|
|
Mangifera indica L. |
TS |
Jan–May |
|
DD |
|
|
Nothopegia heyneana (Hook.f.) Gamble |
TS |
May–Jun |
WG |
NT |
|
|
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz |
TS |
Mar–Dec |
|
|
|
SAPINDACEAE |
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. |
TS |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
A. serratus (Roxb.) Kurz |
TS |
Jul–Oct |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. |
TS |
Jul–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Sapindus trifoliatus L. |
TS |
Dec–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken |
TS |
Mar–Jun |
|
|
|
RUTACEAE |
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa |
TS |
Mar–May |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka |
TS |
Oct–May |
|
|
|
|
G. pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. |
TS |
Sep–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G.Hartley |
TS |
May–Jul |
|
|
|
|
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. |
TS |
Mar–Jul |
|
|
|
|
Zanthoxylum rhetsum (Roxb.) DC. |
TS |
Mar–Nov |
|
|
|
SIMAROUBACEAE |
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston |
TS |
Dec–Jul |
|
|
|
MELIACEAE |
Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A.Juss.) Benth. |
TS |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Azadirachta indica A.Juss. |
TS |
Feb–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. |
SC/TS |
Aug–Dec |
PI |
|
|
MALVACEAE |
Corchorus aestuans L. |
SC |
Aug–Feb |
|
|
|
Grewioideae |
C. capsularis L. |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Grewia nervosa (Lour.) Panigrahi |
TS |
Aug–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. |
TS/SC |
Aug–Feb |
|
|
|
Byttnerioideae |
Melochia corchorifolia L. |
SC |
Jul–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Waltheria indica L. |
SC |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
Sterculioideae |
Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC. |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
Dombeyoideae |
Pterospermum diversifolium Blume |
TS |
Dec–Apr |
|
|
|
|
P. rubiginosum B.Heyne ex Wight & Arn. |
TS |
Nov–Apr |
SWG |
|
|
Helecteroideae |
Helicteres isora L. |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
Malvoideae |
Abelmoschus angulosus var. grandiflorus Thwaites |
SC/TS |
Aug–Dec |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet var. indicum |
SC |
Sep–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Fioria vitifolia (L.) Mattei |
TS |
Apr–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff. |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
|
H. sabdariffa L. |
TS |
Dec–Feb |
|
|
|
|
H. surattensis L. |
TS |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Sida acuta Burm.f. |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
|
|
|
|
S. alnifolia L. |
SC/TS |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. mysorensis Wight & Arn. |
SC |
Oct–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Urena sinuata L. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
Bombacoideae |
Bombax ceiba L. |
TS |
Jan–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
|
|
|
DIPTEROCARPACEAE |
Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. |
TS |
Mar–Jun |
SWG |
EN |
|
CAPPARACEAE |
Capparis floribunda Wight |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
|
|
|
|
C. rheedei DC. |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
WG |
|
|
|
C. zeylanica L. |
TS |
Mar–May |
|
|
|
CLEOMACEAE |
Cleome monophylla L. |
SC |
Feb–Aug |
|
|
|
|
C. rutidosperma DC. |
SC |
May–Nov |
|
|
|
|
C. viscosa L. |
SC/RC |
Mar–Jul |
|
|
|
BRASSICACEAE |
Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch. |
SC |
Mar–May |
|
|
|
OPILIACEAE |
Cansjera rheedei J.F.Gmel. |
TS |
Nov–Feb |
|
|
|
SANTALACEAE |
Santalum album L. |
TS |
Nov–Dec |
|
VU |
|
LORANTHACEAE |
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. var. falcata |
TS |
Dec–May |
|
|
|
|
Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser |
TS |
Dec–Mar |
WG |
|
|
|
Helixanthera intermedia (Wight) Danser |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
SWG |
|
|
|
Macrosolen parasiticus (L.) Danser |
TS |
Dec–May |
SWI & SL |
|
|
PLUMBAGINACEAE |
Plumbago zeylanica L. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
POLYGONACEAE |
Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara |
TS |
Aug–Mar |
|
LC |
|
DROSERACEAE |
Drosera indica L. |
SC/RC/SP |
Jul–Nov |
|
LC |
|
ANCISTROCLADACEAE |
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall. ex J.Graham |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
SI & SL |
|
|
CARYOPHYLLACEAE |
Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. |
RC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Sehweinf. |
SC |
Jan–Mar |
|
|
|
AMARANTHACEAE |
Achyranthes aspera L. |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. |
TS |
Sep–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze |
TS/SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
A. sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex. DC. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
A. tenella Colla var.
tenella |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Amaranthus spinosus L. |
SC |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
|
A. viridis L. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Celosia argentea L. var.
argentea |
RC/SC |
Nov–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume |
TS |
Sep–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Gomphrena globosa L. |
SC |
Aug–Jun |
|
|
|
|
G. serrata L. |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
AIZOACEAE |
Trianthema portulacastrum L. |
SC |
Apr–Jun |
|
|
|
NYCTAGINACEAE |
Boerhavia diffusa L. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy |
TS |
Nov–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Mirabilis jalapa L. |
SC |
Aug–Apr |
|
|
|
MOLLUGINACEAE |
Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. |
SC |
Feb–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Mollugo stricta L. |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
PORTULACACEAE |
Portulaca oleracea L. |
SC |
Jun–Sep |
|
|
|
CACTACEAE |
Cereus pterogonus Lem. |
SC |
Apr–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. |
SC |
Nov–Mar |
|
DD |
|
CORNACEAE |
Alangium salviifolium subsp. hexapetalum (Lam.) Wangerin |
TS |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
BALSAMINACEAE |
Impatiens balsamina L. |
SC |
Mar–Oct |
|
|
|
|
I. flaccida Arn. |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
I. minor (DC.) Bennet |
SC/RC |
Aug–Dec |
PI |
|
|
LECYTHIDACEAE |
Careya arborea Roxb. |
TS |
Feb–Jul |
|
|
|
SAPOTACEAE |
Chrysophyllum cainito L. |
TS |
Jul–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F. Macbr. |
TS |
Mar–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Mimusops elengi L. |
TS |
Dec–Aug |
|
|
|
EBENACEAE |
Diospyros candolleana Wight |
TS |
Apr–Mar |
PI |
|
|
ICACINACEAE |
Sarcostigma kleinii Wight & Arn. |
TS |
Feb–Jun |
|
|
|
RUBIACEAE |
Argostemma courtallense Arn. |
TS/RC |
Jul–Sep |
I |
|
|
|
Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirveng. |
TS |
Jan–May |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.) Alston |
TS |
Apr–Jun |
|
|
|
|
C. rheedei DC. |
TS |
Mar–Jun |
PI |
|
|
|
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. |
TS |
Apr–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Chassalia curviflora var. ophioxyloides (Wall.) Deb &
B.Krishna |
TS |
Jul–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Dentella repens (L.) J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. var. repens |
SC |
Mar–Apr |
|
LC |
|
|
Discospermum sphaerocarpum Dalzell ex Hook.f. |
TS |
Apr–Jun |
WG & SL |
|
|
|
Ixora brachiata Roxb. |
TS |
Jan–May |
WG |
|
|
|
I. coccinea L. |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
I. javanica (Blume) DC. |
SC |
Nov–Jul |
|
|
|
|
I. malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
SWG |
VU |
|
|
Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. |
TS |
Mar–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Morinda citrifolia L. |
TS |
Jul–Nov |
|
|
|
|
M. pubescens J.E.Smith |
TS |
Mar–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Mussaenda frondosa L. |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
PI |
|
|
|
Neanotis rheedei (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) W.H. Lewis |
RC |
Sep–Dec |
WG |
|
|
|
N. subtilis (Miq.) Govaerts ex Punekar & Lakshmin. |
RC/SC |
Aug–Dec |
SI |
|
|
|
Oldenlandia auricularia (L.) K.Schum. |
TS |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
|
O. corymbosa L. var.
corymbosa |
SC |
Apr–Sep |
|
|
|
|
O. herbacea (L.) Roxb. |
RC/SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Pavetta indica L. var. indica |
TS |
Apr–Jul |
|
|
|
|
Spermacoce articularis L.f. |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. latifolia Aubl. |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
|
|
|
|
S. ocymoides Burm.f. |
SC |
Nov–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. pusilla Wall. |
SC |
Oct–Nov |
|
|
|
GENTIANACEAE |
Canscora pauciflora Dalzell |
SC |
Jul–Nov |
WG |
|
|
|
Canscorinella stricta (Sedgw.) Nampy & Shahina |
RC |
Aug–Feb |
SI |
|
|
|
Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) C.B.Clarke |
SC |
Sep–Oct |
|
LC |
|
LOGANIACEAE |
Mitrasacme indica Wight |
SC |
Sep–Oct |
|
|
|
|
M. pygmaea var. malaccensis (Wight) Hara |
SC |
Jun–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Strychnos minor Dennst. |
TS |
Sep–Oct |
|
|
|
|
S. nux–vomica L. |
TS |
Mar–Dec |
|
|
|
APOCYNACEAE Rauvolfioideae |
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. |
TS |
Oct–Feb |
|
LC |
|
|
Catharanthus pusillus (Murray) G.Don |
SC |
Apr–Oct |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Kamettia caryophyllata (Roxb.) Nicolson & C.R.Suresh |
TS |
Sep–Jan |
SWG |
|
|
|
Plumeria rubra L. |
TS |
Nov–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz |
TS |
Apr–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Tabernaemontana alternifolia L. |
TS |
Apr–Oct |
SWG |
|
|
|
T. divaricata (L.) R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
Apocynoideae |
Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G.Don |
TS |
Apr–Dec |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.–Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don |
TS |
Apr–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton |
TS |
Aug–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br. |
TS |
Feb–Nov |
|
|
|
Periplocoideae |
Gymnema sylvestre Roem. & Schult. |
TS |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Cryptolepis buchananii (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. |
TS/SC |
Jul–Jan |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. |
TS |
Aug–Dec |
I & SL |
|
|
Asclepiadoideae |
Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Cosmostigma racemosum (Roxb.) Wight |
TS |
Apr–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. |
SC |
Sep–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Tylophora capparidifolia Wight & Arn. |
TS |
Mar–Jun |
SWG |
|
|
|
T. indica (Burm.f.) Merr. var. indica |
TS |
Feb–Jul |
|
|
|
|
Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf |
TS |
Mar–Jul |
|
|
|
BORAGINACEAE |
Coldenia procumbens L. |
SC |
Mar–May |
|
|
|
|
Cordia obliqua Willd. |
TS |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Heliotropium keralense Sivar. & Manilal |
SC |
Mar–May |
SWG |
|
|
|
H. marifolium Retz. |
RC/SC |
Apr–Aug |
PI & SL |
|
|
CONVOLVULACEAE |
Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer |
TS |
Dec–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Bonamia semidigyna (Roxb.) Hallier f. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Erycibe paniculata Roxb. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. var. alsinoides |
RC/SC |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
|
E. nummularius (L.) L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Ipomoea hederifolia L. |
TS |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
|
I. marginata (Desr.) Manitz
f. marginata |
TS/SC |
Dec–Mar |
|
|
|
|
I. mauritiana Jacq. |
TS |
Aug–Sep |
|
|
|
|
I. nil (L.)
Roth |
TS |
Nov–Jan |
|
|
|
|
I. obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
I. pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. subsp. pes-caprae |
SC |
Nov–Mar |
|
|
|
|
I. quamoclit L. |
SC |
Oct–Dec |
|
|
|
|
I. triloba L. |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier f. |
TS |
Jan–Apr |
|
|
|
|
M. vitifolia (Burm.f.) Hallier f. |
TS/SC |
Nov–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Neuropeltis malabarica Ooststr. |
TS |
Nov–Mar |
SWG (K) |
|
|
|
Xenostegia tridentata subsp. hastata (Desr.) Panigrahi & Murti |
TS/SC |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
|
X. tridentata (L.) D.F.Austin & Staples subsp. tridentata |
RC/SC |
Nov–Jan |
|
|
|
SOLANACEAE |
Datura stramonium L. |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Physalis angulata L. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Solanum americanum Mill. |
SC |
Mar–Nov |
|
|
|
|
S. melongena var. insanum Prain |
TS |
Aug–Mar |
|
|
|
|
S. torvum Sw. |
SC |
Jul–Mar |
|
|
|
HYDROLEACEAE |
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl |
SP |
Aug–Jan |
|
LC |
|
OLEACEAE |
Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. |
TS |
Jan–Jun |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
J. flexile Vahl |
TS |
Oct–Mar |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
J. malabaricum Wight |
TS |
Mar–Nov |
WG |
|
|
|
Olea dioica Roxb. |
TS |
Nov–Apr |
I |
|
|
GESNERIACEAE |
Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) B.L. Burtt |
TS |
Jul–Dec |
SWI & SL |
|
|
PLANTAGINACEAE |
Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. |
SP |
Aug–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Microcarpaea minima (K.D.Koenig ex Retz.) Merr. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Scoparia dulcis L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Stemodia verticillata (Mill.) Hassl. |
SC |
May–Sep |
|
|
|
LINDERNIACEAE |
Bonnaya antipoda (L.) Druce |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
|
|
|
|
B. ciliata (Colsm.) Spreng. |
SC |
Jun–Oct |
|
|
|
|
B. oppositifolia (Retz.) Spreng. |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
PI |
|
|
|
Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines |
SP |
Mar–Sep |
|
|
|
|
L. madayiparensis Ratheesh, Sunil & Nandakumar |
SP |
Oct–Dec |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
L. manilaliana Sivar. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
SI (K) |
EN |
|
|
L. tamilnadensis M.G.Prasad & Sunojk. |
SC |
Oct–Mar |
SI |
|
|
|
Torenia crustacea (L.) Cham. & Schltdl. |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
|
T. lindernioides C.J.Saldanha |
SC |
Jul–Mar |
SWG |
|
|
|
Vandellia micrantha (D.Don) Eb. Fisch. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
V. pusilla (Willd.) Merr. |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
|
|
|
PEDALIACEAE |
Sesamum indicum subsp. malabaricum (Burm.) Bedigian |
SC |
Jan–Sep |
I |
|
|
LAMIACEAE Symphorematoideae |
Symphorema involucratum Roxb. |
TS |
Mar–Apr |
|
|
|
Viticoideae |
Gmelina arborea Roxb. |
TS |
Jan–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Premna serratifolia L. |
TS |
May–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Vitex altissima L.f. |
TS |
Mar–Jul |
|
|
|
|
V. negundo L. |
SC |
Feb–Jul |
|
|
|
|
V. trifolia L. |
SC |
May–Jul |
|
|
|
Ajugoideae |
Clerodendrum calamitosum L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
C. indicum (L.) Kuntze |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
C. infortunatum L. |
TS |
Dec–Feb |
|
|
|
|
C. paniculatum L. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. |
TS |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
Lamioideae |
Leucas lavandulifolia Sm. |
SC |
Jul–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Pogostemon deccanensis (Panigrahi) Press |
SP |
Sep–Dec |
SI |
|
|
|
P. paniculatus (Willd.) Benth. |
TS |
Oct–Feb |
|
|
|
|
P. quadrifolius (Benth.) F.Muell. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
I |
DD |
|
Nepetoideae |
Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. |
RC |
Sep–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. |
SC/TS |
Aug–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
Lamiaceae: Incertae sedis |
Tectona grandis L.f. |
TS |
May–Jan |
|
|
|
OROBANCHACEAE |
Aeginetia indica L. |
TS |
Aug–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Centranthera nepalensis D.Don |
SC |
Sep–Dec |
SI |
|
|
|
C. tranquebarica (Spreng.) Merr. |
SC |
Sep–Nov |
|
LC |
|
|
Parasopubia hofmannii Pradeep
& Pramod var. hofmannii |
RC/SC |
Jun–Oct |
SI |
|
|
|
P. hofmannii var. albiflora Pradeep & Pramod |
RC/SC |
Jun–Oct |
SI |
|
|
|
Rhamphicarpa longiflora (Arn.) Benth. |
SC/SP |
Aug–Nov |
I |
|
|
|
Striga angustifolia (D.Don) C.J.Saldanha |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
S. asiatica (L.) Kuntze |
SC |
Jul–Sep |
|
|
|
|
S. gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
LENTIBULARIACEAE |
Utricularia aurea Lour. |
SP |
Aug–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
U. cecilii P.Taylor |
SP |
Aug–Oct |
WG |
EN |
|
|
U. graminifolia Vahl |
SP |
Aug–Oct |
|
LC |
|
|
U. lazulina P.Taylor |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
WG |
LC |
|
|
U. uliginosa Vahl |
SC |
Aug–Nov |
|
|
|
ACANTHACEAE |
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees |
SC/TS |
Mar–Dec |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Asystasia dalzelliana Santapau |
TS |
Sep–Jan |
|
|
|
|
A. gangetica (L.) T.Anderson subsp. gangetica |
TS |
Sep–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Barleria courtallica Nees |
TS |
Dec–May |
I & SL |
|
|
|
B. prionitis L. subsp. prionitis |
SC |
Aug–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees |
SC |
Dec–Mar |
I & SL |
|
|
|
Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I.Darbysh. |
TS |
Dec–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Ecbolium viride (Forssk.) Alston
var. viride |
TS |
Nov–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Eranthemum capense L. |
TS |
Jan–Mar |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Haplanthodes neilgherryensis (Wight) R.B.Majumdar |
SC/TS |
Jan–Mar |
WG |
|
|
|
Hygrophila ringens (L.) Steud. |
SC |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Justicia adhatoda L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
J. ekakusuma Pradeep & Sivar. |
RC/SC |
Aug–Sep |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
J. japonica Thunb. |
SC |
Aug–Feb |
|
|
|
|
J. nagpurensis V.A.W.Graham |
SC/RC |
May–Nov |
SWI |
|
|
|
Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees |
SC |
Feb–Jun |
I |
|
|
|
L. incurva Buch.-Ham.
ex D.Don var. incurva |
TS |
Feb–Apr |
|
|
|
|
L. keralensis Madhus. & N.P.Singh |
RC/SC |
Dec–Apr |
SI (K) |
|
|
|
Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet |
SC/TS |
Nov–Mar |
|
LC |
|
|
Pseuderanthemum malabaricum (C.B.Clarke) Gamble |
TS |
Dec–Mar |
PI & SL |
|
|
|
Ruellia prostrata Poir. |
TS |
Oct–Apr |
I |
|
|
|
Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees |
SC/TS |
Nov–Feb |
|
|
|
|
Strobilanthes integrifolia (Dalzell) Kuntze |
TS |
Dec–Mar |
WG |
|
|
|
Thunbergia erecta (Benth.) T.Anderson |
TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
BIGNONIACEAE |
Millingtonia hortensis L.f. |
TS |
Mar–Aug |
|
|
|
|
Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K.Schum. |
TS |
Jan–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Stereospermum tetragonum DC. |
TS |
Feb–Oct |
|
|
|
VERBENACEAE |
Lantana camara L. |
TS |
Apr–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene |
SC |
Nov–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl |
SC/TS |
Jun–Dec |
|
|
|
CAMPANULACEAE |
Lobelia alsinoides Lam. |
SC |
Aug–Oct |
|
LC |
|
MENYANTHACEAE |
Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze |
SP |
Jan–Dec |
|
LC |
|
|
N. krishnakesara K.T.Joseph & Sivar. |
SP |
Aug–Nov |
SWG (K) |
EN |
|
ASTERACEAE |
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
SC |
Jan–Jun |
|
|
|
|
Acmella ciliata (Kunth) Cass. |
SC |
Aug–Sep |
|
|
|
|
A. radicans (Jacq.) R.K.Jansen |
SC |
Oct–Mar |
|
|
|
|
Ageratum conyzoides L. |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Blumea axillaris (Lam.) DC. |
SC/TS |
Jan–Nov |
|
|
|
|
B. barbata DC. |
SC/TS |
Dec–Mar |
SI & SL |
|
|
|
B. oxyodonta DC. |
SC |
Oct–May |
|
|
|
|
Centratherum punctatum Cass. |
SC |
Aug–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. |
TS |
Nov–May |
|
|
|
|
Conyza stricta Willd. |
SC |
Sep–Oct |
|
|
|
|
Cosmos caudatus Kunth |
SC |
Aug–Feb |
|
|
|
|
C. sulphureus Cav. |
SC |
Feb–Nov |
|
|
|
|
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore |
SC |
Aug–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. |
SC/TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
DD |
|
|
Elephantopus scaber L. |
SC/TS |
Oct–Jan |
|
|
|
|
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. |
SC |
Jul–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Epaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. |
SC |
Dec–Apr |
|
LC |
|
|
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. |
SC |
Mar–Jul |
|
LC |
|
|
Mikania micrantha Kunth |
TS |
Feb–Apr |
|
|
|
|
Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski |
SC |
May–Sep |
|
|
|
|
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. |
SC/TS |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
|
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray |
SC |
Sep–May |
|
|
|
|
Tricholepis amplexicaulis C.B.Clarke |
SC |
Oct–Feb |
WG |
|
|
|
Tridax procumbens L. |
SC |
Jan–Dec |
|
|
|
APIACEAE |
Pimpinella heyneana (DC.) Benth. |
SC |
Oct–Feb |
|
|
Microhabitat: RC—Exposed rock surfaces and crevices | SC—Soil
covered areas and grassy plains and slopes | SP—Seasonal ponds and small
ephemeral pools | TS—Tree cover and scrub patches.
Endemism: C&PI—central and peninsular India | I—India |
K—Kerala | PI—Peninsular India | SI—southern India | SL—Sri Lanka | SWG—southern
Western Ghats | SWI—southwestern India | WG—Western Ghats.
IUCN Status: CR—Critically Endangered | DD—Data Deficient |
EN—Endangered | LC—Least Concerned | NT—Near Threatened | VU—Vulnerable |
Blank—not assessed.
Table 2. List of novel taxa described from Madayippara
Lateritic Plateau
|
|
Taxa |
Family |
Year of Publication |
Reference |
|
1 |
Rotala malabarica |
Lythraceae |
1990 |
Pradeep, A.K., K.T. Joseph & V.V. Sivarajan, Botanical
Bulletin of Academia Sinica 31: 59–61. |
|
2 |
Nymphoides krishnakesara |
Menyanthaceae |
1990 |
Joseph, K.T. & V.V. Sivarajan, Nordic Journal
of Botany 10(3): 281–284. |
|
3 |
Justicia ekakusuma |
Acanthaceae |
1991 |
Pradeep, A.K. & V.V. Sivarajan, Rheedea
1(1&2): 40–43. |
|
4 |
Lepidagathis keralensis |
Acanthaceae |
1992 |
Madhusoodanan, P.V. & N.P. Singh, Kew
Bulletin 47(2): 301–303. |
|
5 |
Eriocaulon madayiparense |
Eriocaulaceae |
2012 |
Swapna, M.M., K.P. Rajesh, C.N. Manju & R.
Prakashkumar, Phytokeys 10: 19–23. |
|
6 |
Coelachne madayensis |
Poaceae |
2012 |
Pramod, C., A.K. Pradeep & J.F. Veldkamp, Gardens’
Bulletin Singapore 64(2): 289–292. |
|
7 |
Parasopubia hofmannii |
Orobanchaceae |
2013 |
Pradeep, A.K. & C. Pramod, Candollea
68(1): 115–122. |
|
8 |
Parasopubia hofmannii var. albiflora |
Orobanchaceae |
2013 |
Pradeep, A.K. & C. Pramod, Candollea
68(1): 115–122. |
|
9 |
Fimbristylis pokkudaniana |
Cyperaceae |
2016 |
Sunil, C.N., M.K. Ratheesh Narayanan, M. Sivadasan,
V.V. Naveenkumar, A.H. Alfarhan, V. Abdul Jaleel & M.H. Sameh, Botany
Letters 164 (1): 19–22. |
|
10 |
Chrysopogon narayaniae |
Poaceae |
2017 |
Sunil, C.N., M.K. Ratheesh Narayanan, M. Sivadasan,
T. Shaju, V.V. Naveen Kumar & A.H. Alfarhan, Phytotaxa 307(4):
245–253. |
Table 3. Number of species, endemics and threatened
species in different microhabitats.
|
Microhabitat |
Number of species recorded |
Number of endemic species |
Percentage of endemic species |
Number of threatened species |
Percentage of threatened species |
|
Exposed rock surfaces and crevices (RC) |
40 |
25 |
63% |
1 |
3% |
|
Seasonal ponds and small ephemeral pools (SP) |
47 |
20 |
43% |
5 |
11% |
|
Soil covered areas and grassy plains and slopes (SC) |
297 |
56 |
19% |
3 |
1% |
|
Tree cover and scrub patches (TS) |
308 |
86 |
28% |
5 |
2% |
For figures & images - - click here
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