Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org
| 26 March 2018 | 10(3): 11416–11422
The
Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera Daudin,
1800 (Aves: Falconiformes: Falconidae)
breeding on Palmyra Palm at Bahour Lake, Puducherry (Pondicherry), India
Raveendran Lekshmi 1 & Surendhar Boobalan
2
1 Department
of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India
2 No. 18, Perumal Koil Street, Alankuppam, Puducherry 605111,
India
1 lekshmises@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 sureboo@gmail.com
Abstract: Breeding
of the Red-headed Falcon Falco
chicquera
is being reported from Bahour Lake in Union Territory
of Puducherry along with the breeding period
observations. The falcon nesting on
the Palmyra palm Borassus flabellifer is reported for the first time from the country. The
courtship was observed in mid-January and chicks fledged in mid-April.
Incubation lasted 37 days, chicks fledged in 34–37 days, become nest
independent in 40–43 days and become independent from parental care in
69–72 days. Feeding frequency
for 27–30 days old chicks were five prey deliveries during a two hoursŐ
observation in the morning.
Fledglings were adult size, but with brownish crown and moustachial stripe, pale collar, maroon shoulders, darker wings
and buff tinge on the underside; and were observed to retain the foraging
territory in nesting area even after one month of removal from parental
care. Availability of quality crow
nest in areas of good prey density could be a decisive factor in selecting
breeding location; many crow nests on Palmyra palms were noticed in Puducherry region.
The palm nesting falcon could face additional threats from toddy and
fruit extractors since the breeding season coincides with the flowering and
fruiting season of Palmyra.
Keywords: Breeding,
East Coast, Falco chicquera,
Palmyra palm Puducherry, Red-headed Falcon.
doi: http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3221.10.3.11416-11422
Editor: Rajiv S. Kalsi, M.L.N. College, Yamuna
Nagar, Haryana, India. Date of publication: 26 March 2018 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms # 3221 | Received 18 September 2017
| Final received 20 January 2018 | Finally accepted 31 January 2018
Citation: Lekshmi, R. &
S. Boobalan (2018). The
Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera
Daudin, 1800 (Aves: Falconiformes:
Falconidae) breeding on Palmyra Palm at Bahour Lake, Puducherry
(Pondicherry), India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(3): 11416–11422; http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3221.10.3.11416-11422
Copyright: © Lekshmi & Boobalan 2018. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and
the source of publication.
Funding: Self-funded.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author Details: R. Lekshmi has done a masters in
Environmental Science and Management at Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala and
is currently pursuing a PhD at Pondicherry University in Ecology and
Environmental Sciences. Surendhar Boobalan is a
Primary School Teacher at Government Primary School, Indira Nagar, Puducherry who is also an avid
birder.
Author Contribution: The breeding pair of Red-headed Falcons was first sighted
and field study was conducted by SB. RL prepared the manuscript and compiled
the data.
Introduction
The Red-headed
Falcon Falco chicquera (RHF) is
usually encountered in the drier and open habitats of the plains with sparse
vegetation, arable fields and near human habitation, from open country to
cities (Baker & Inglis 1930; Subramanya
1980, 1982; Kazmierczak 2000; Ali 2002; Naoroji 2006; Foysal 2010; Naoroji 2011).
It is a resident falcon, although local movements occur in northeastern
and southwestern India (Naoroji 2006; Praveen & Sankar 2010).
Until recently, this Asian falcon was considered to be conspecific with
the Red-necked Falcon (RNF) occurring in Africa, the F. ruficollis (del Hoyo et al. 2014; BirdLife International 2016).
The falcon is
reported throughout India in checklists and eBird
(2016); there are many historic collection records. Breeding and continued
presence have been reported from Gujarat (Dharmakumarsinhji
1955; Tiwari 2000; Naoroji
2006, 2011), Rajasthan (Barnes 1886), Pune (Dharap
1974; Gole 1980; Ingalhallikar
1988) and Bangalore (Baker et al. 1930; Govindakrishnan
et al. 1978; Subramanya 1980, 1982, 1985). The falcon is considered to be rare in
West Bengal, the North-east and South-west with
records from Assam, Cachar and Manipur (Inglis 1899; Ali 2002; Naoroji
2006) and scattered records across Kerala (Neelakantan
1960; Zacharias & Gaston 1993; Sugathan &
Varghese 1996; Praveen & Sankar 2010). In Tamilnadu, it was reported from Chennai (Dewar 1905),
Madurai (Nichols 1944), Mettupalayam (Ramkumar & Karthick 2005),
Point Calimere (Sugathan
1982) and Tirunelveli (Webb-Peploe
1945). RHF seems to thrive well in
and around Chennai located 140km north of Puducherry,
where it is reported from at least 20 different locations on eBird (2016).
Between 2012 and 2016, nine birds along with nesting were sighted at
Chennai (Karthik Ramamurthy pers. comm. 2016). Three birds were sighted between Chennai
and Puducherry at Kaliveli
wetland and Dindivanam (Lekshmi
Raveendran pers. obs. 2016).
RHF has become
Near Threatened due to a rapid decline throughout its home range in South Asia
and habitat fragmentation (BirdLife International
2014). The falcon is reported to
have low fecundity, low survival rate and high pesticide contamination of eggs;
proportion of infertile eggs is estimated to be 14–27 % and a fledging
rate of 1.44 chicks per nest (Osborne 1981; Olwagen
& Olwagen 1984; Bednarek
1987). The falcon is selective in
choosing a mate and nest site. Pair-bonding is much delayed among wild-caught birds in
captive breeding experiments (Olwagen & Olwagen 1984; Bednarek
1987). It prefers to breed in the
vicinity of humans and usually occupies an old raptor or crow nest rather than
building a nest on its own (Dharap 1977; Subramanya 1982; Ali 2002; Naoroji
2006, 2011). In addition to trees,
nesting on artificial structures like electricity pylons (Foysal
2015), city towers (Gole 1980) and water tank (Foysal 2010) are also reported.
Extensive studies
on its in situ breeding behaviour, nesting cycle,
diet, parental roles and ecology were done by Subramanya
(1982), Foysal (2010), Naoroji
(2011) and Foysal (2015) and in Africa that of RNF by
Osborne (1981). The ex situ
(captive) breeding aspects of RHF were studied by Bednarek
(1987) and that of RNF by Olwagen & Olwagen (1984). The breeding of RHF is hitherto reported
for the first time from the Union Territory of Puducherry
(erstwhile Pondicherry), at Bahour Lake along with
observations on its breeding cycle which will add more information to the
current knowledge on the breeding biology of the species.
Study Area
Puducherry is located on the east coast of southern India in Union
Territory of Puducherry as enclaves within the Tamil
Nadu plains. The climate is coastal
sub-arid and vegetation is dominated by thorny scrub jungle, Acacia and Palmyra
palms. The major rainy season is
the northeast monsoon occassionally accompanied by cyclones. The region has numerous constructed tanks for
water storage since the soil is coastal alluvium and red soil high in clay
content (Bureau of Statistics & Evaluation 1976). Bahour Lake is
an interstate freshwater tank of 600ha located mostly in Puducherry
and is part of a poorly drained coastal flood plain in the catchment of Pennaiyar River (Bureau of Statistics & Evaluation
1976). The main source of water to the Lake is run off and flood water released
to the river from Sathanar Dam located 105km
upstream.
Bahour Lake may reach >1m depth towards the year end and dries up almost completely between May and
September leaving only a narrow channel along its boundaries. The water depth and duration of dry
months depends on the duration and strength of consecutive northeast
monsoons. While drying up, the lake
transforms itself into a variety of swampy, marshy and grassland habitats that
support abundant waterfowl populations. It has been recognized as an Important
Bird Area that can support more than 20,000 birds every year but lacks official
protection (Islam & Rahmani 2004).
There are paddyfields on either side of the lake and its Puducherry side is less inhabited. The bund along this side is lined with
large trees soon giving way to Palmyra Palms. The nest under study was located on a
tall palm (>25m) on the lake embankment in the immediate vicinity of
scattered households belonging to Nirnayapet Village;
the villagers regularly visit the falcon nesting area for crossing over,
defecation and toddy extraction.
Method
Regular weekly
observations of 30 minutes to two hours depending on the breeding stage
throughout the breeding period (January–June 2016) were made from the
terrace of a nearby house (shorter observations during pre-incubation,incubation stages and longer observations during
other stages).
Results and Discussion
The RHF was first
sighted at Bahour Lake of Puducherry
in April 2014. On 18 January 2015,
a pair was sighted on a Palmyra Palm Borassus fabellifer having an old nest and breeding was discovered on 15
January 2016 on a palm located diagonally opposite to it.
Breeding period observations
Breeding period
observations are summarized in Table 1.
The nest was a platform of twigs positioned between the base of the Palm leaf stalks. The female was found sitting in the nest
plucking the prey that the male had delivered (Image 1); the male was positioned
on the look-out palm, guarding the nest. There was no continuous nest occupation
by female, so the pair was presumed to be in the courtship stage as suggested
by Foysal (2010, 2015).
Female-solicited
mating was observed after 10 days on the perch palm located diagonally opposite
to the nest (Image 2). The day was
overcast, with morning mist and intermittent rains. In falcons, multiple copulations through
out the fertile window is common and especially in RHF, copulation starts 16-18
days before laying and lasts through out laying period (Olwagen
& Olwagen 1984; Bednarek
1987; Sodhi 1991; Villarroel
et al. 1998). The male falcon
though aggressive to crows and rollers approaching the nest, both opportunistic
predators, was tolerant of human presence. In RHF and RNF, the normal adult
clutch size is 3–4 eggs laid at an interval of 1–3 days and
incubation would begin on laying the third or last egg (Osborne 1981; Bednarek 1987).
On 26 January, the female started to occupy the nest continuously, but it
was prone to easy distraction and often got up in the nest. Proper incubation was recorded from 28
January. Throughout the incubation
period the bird was passive to the observer and other disturbances. During tight brooding in the first
fortnight of March, the female was uneasy of observerŐs approach and shifted
position in nest warily, unlike during the incubation period. It had blood stained bill and the nest
was festooned with soft white feathers like cotton shreds. When the chicks
reached 19–22 days old, the female parent left the chicks for longer
periods, exercised and nest guarded on the perch palm and participated in
co-operative hunting. There were
short periods of absence of the female from the nest during incubation and post
hatching when the eggs and chicks were exposed to opportunistic predators,
mainly to crows. Both the male and
female were involved in defensive chases and contact against approaching crows.
Table 1. Summary of breeding observations
Event |
Date |
Duration/observations |
Breeding pair sighting |
15.i.2016 |
Food transfer at nest, nest defence |
Pre-incubation nest occupancy |
15.i.2016–27.i.2016 |
Courtship, laying |
Mating |
24.i.2016 |
Recopulation |
Incubation |
28.i.2016–04.iii.2016 |
37 days |
Hatching |
05.iii.2016–08.iii.2016 |
4 days |
Brooding |
08.iii.2016–25.iii.2016 |
18 days |
Fledging |
10.iv.2016 |
34–37 days |
Nest independency |
16.iv.2016 |
40–43 days |
Independency from parental care |
14.v.2016 |
69–72 days |
Nestling development
On 26 March,
three new hatchlings were detected at the nest when the female left to join the
male on the perch tree; two of which stood up could be observed properly. The chicks were clothed in white downy
feathers except for some juvenile feathers sprouting on wings, head and front
(Image 3). One of the chicks had
almost white (downy) head and wing, which could have been a late hatcher. They were estimated to be 19–22
days old following the plumage description of RHF chicks by Osborne (1981), Olwagen & Olwagen (1984) and Naoroji (2006), thus bringing the hatching date to around 5
March. This gives a longer
incubation period of 37 days. In
captivity RHF was found to have an average 35 days incubation period which prolonged to 39 days when initial humidity was
high under artificial temperature, humidity and photoperiods (Bednarek 1987). Foysal (2015) has
reported a shorter duration of 28 days from Bangladesh which
is the only incubation period reported from the wild.
On 03 April, only
two 27–30 days old nestlings with complete juvenile plumage (brown head
and buff underparts including throat and meagre traces of down) were present at the nest; the third
one had been lost. Both survived chicks fledged synchronously on 10 April when
they were 34–37 days old and became nest independent when they were
40–43 days old. The
34–37 days old fledglings were of adult falcon size and resembled them
closely with the exceptions of having brownish crown and moustachial
stripe, pale rufous collar, darker wings, maroon
shoulders and buff tinged underparts (Image 4). Both were of different sizes despite
their similar appearance and were presumed to be of different sexes. Maiden
flight was attempted to the perch palm and both later made a few short trips to
the nearest palms of less than 50m in the vicinity, always accompanied by parent(s). During these trial flights, a juvenile was attacked twice by Large-billed Crow despite the
ferocious counter-chases and defenses by the parents. After this incident, all falcons spent a
lot of time of inactivity under a thick crowned Palmyra palm. On 16 April, one of the parents but no
juvenile (now 40–43 days old) was sighted in the area, which was also the
last sighting of the adult.
Complete
independence (from parental care) and independent hunting was observed on May 14, 35 days post fledging, when they were found hunting
as a pair at the lake (69–72 days old). They tried to catch a White-throated
Kingfisher in flight, but missed it.
Between 25 May and 18 June, none of the falcons were sighted. The nest tree had fruited by then and
nest had visibly thinned into a few sticks. A juvenile RHF was found on 19 June, now
100–103 days old (3 months old), on a dead Acacia tree projecting from
the middle of the lake and could have become as efficient a hunter as the
parent (Image 6). By this time, the
underside plumage had almost lost the buff tinge and had become predominantly
whitish. The juvenile established
its initial territory near the nest site even after 100 days of fledging, as
observed by Foysal (2015). The sighting of a subadult
RHF in juvenile plumage (brown head, pale collar, maroon shoulder, blunt wings)
at Kaliveli wetland near Puducherry
in August suggests that juvenile plumage may persist for a few months after
becoming independent (in May–June), as suggested by Osborne (1981).
Feeding behaviour
The nest was
observed for two hours from 06.15–8.15 hr for
the feeding behaviour of the 27–30 days old
nestlings. The female had moved to
the perch palm for nest guarding and preening while the male went out
hunting. The male had four successful
hunts and the pair hunted together once.
Once or twice the male returned with prey in about a minute. Male brought the kill to the perch tree
and plucked, where it was accepted by the female which
it fed to the juvenile falcons back at the nest (Image 5). Feeding frequency was five times in two
hours or 1.25/chick/hour. Prolonged
feeding of chicks for 4–5 minutes was observed. In Gujarat, a longer nestling period of
48 days and nest-dependency period of 55 days has been observed (Naoroji 2011).
It is possible that the nestling period is influenced by food intake
since the feeding frequency studied in Gujarat was 0.48/hour/chick in
25–31 days old chicks, lower than the feeding frequency reported by Foysal (2015) of 0.8/hour/chick for 25–32 days old
chick and that observed during present study of 1.25/hour/chick in 27–30
day old chick with an average of eight foraging hours/day (Naoroji
2011), though the observed feeding frequency need more set of observations to
be conclusive.
Breeding site fidelity
The falcon has
been a breeding site fidel at Bahour
Lake since
it was sighted during all breeding periods between 2014 and 2017. Similar site fidelity has been reported
by other studies (Subramanya 1982, 1985; Foysal 2010; Naoroji 2011; Foysal 2015). The observed breeding periods (January-June) corresponds to the general breeding period reported for the
subcontinent (Baker & Inglis 1930; Subramanya 1982; Ali 2002; Naoroji
2006; Foysal 2010, 2015). Naoroji (2006,
2011) reported a late onset of breeding and fledging in RHF under drought
conditions. Late breeding of RHF at
Bahour Lake with fledging in June was observed in
2017 when drought conditions prevailed due to total failure of the preceding north-east monsoon.
Palmyra palm as a nesting choice
RHF breeding on
Palmyra palm is previously unreported in India and the falcon is regarded as unspecialised in its nesting choice (Naoroji
2011). At Bahour, however, it seems to have a marked
preference for the Palmyra Palm since the lake itself also had plenty of
lofty-crowned trees with abandoned crow and Shikra
nests. Preference for Palmyra palms for breeding by RHF has been noted in
Bangladesh (Foysal 2010) and in Africa for RNF
(Osborne 1981). In 2017 also, the
Falcon preferred to breed on a Palmyra palm near a heavily populated settlement
at Bahour.
No nest building
activity has been noticed in any of the years. The present nest, in all possibility,
was a crow nest. Many crow nests
were spotted on Palmyra palms through out Puducherry
bioregion including Bahour during July–November
2016; in Kaliveli wetland alone more than 30 and at Bahour Falcon breeding site, three new Crow nests were
sighted during the period. Incidentally, sightings of an adult and a sub-adult
RHF at Kaliveli wetland located 40km from Bahour during the period were both near to crow nests (one
on an electricity pole and another on a Palmyra Palm). These observations suggest that in Puducherry region, RHF does have a preference for crow
nests on tall palms located in sites of good prey availability.
At Bahour the location of the current nest palm is also an
ideal hunt location. The tall palm
has on its one side open water, marshland and grassland, the extent of which
vary among months since Bahour Lake tends to dry up
in summer. On its otherside there are paddy fields and thorny Acacia and
shrub hedges. These habitats
support a large number of prey like small wetland
birds and woodland birds. In addition, the palm tree can serve as an ideal
outpost with a 3600 visibility for fast locating and tracking prey
and predators while the thick crown of the palm effectively hides the nest and
the falcon. It is also evident from the feeding data that the falcon hunts a
large number of prey items during breeding (Osborne 1981; Bednarek
1987; Naoroji 2011; Foysal
2015) which necessitates, in the breeding season, a correspondingly large
foraging territory with good prey density or a quality foraging site with good
prey abundance. Bahour Lake remained flooded to its
full expanse upto mid March 2016 and then started to
dry up creating different potential waterfowl habitats. The nestling and fledgling stages of RHF
coincided with return migration of waders Charadrius spp.,
abundance of Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus and congregation of resident waterfowl with fledglings,
especially of Rallids and Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus. Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus, Flycatchers Muscicapa spp. & Terpsiphone paradisi,
Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava and Reed Warblers Acrocephalus spp.
were abundant in the first half of breeding season while Paddyfield
Pipit Anthus rufulus, Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula, JerdonŐs Bushlark
Mirafra affinis, Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus, Common Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus, White-browed Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus, Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer, Yellow Billed Babbler, Common Iora
Aegithina tiphia, Indian Oriole Oriolus kundoo, Common Myna Acridotheres tristris, Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata, Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis, Spotted Dove Streptopilia chinensis, Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto, and Red Collared Dove Streptopelia tranquebarica were available throughout the breeding season. The primary preference of the falcon in
breeding location selection however seems to be availability of a well-built
crow nest along with quick prey options, which could be the reason of it ending
up breeding in human vicinity (since crows live associated with humans).
Nesting on palm
trees in the vicinity of humans has its own risks. It was noted that a few of the palms of
the nest site had neatly trimmed crowns by May; a few palms had immature or
remaining fruits post-harvest and pots inserted for toddy extraction. On interacting with villagers, we were
conveyed that March–June is toddy and fruit extraction season, when the
toddy/fruit extractors may also trim the crown for Palm leaves. The toddy extractors would destroy any
nests present (even with eggs or chicks) during insertion of pot in order to
escape from the attack of parent birds while retrieving the pots. This also make
them vulnerable to collection for pet trade, for which birds of prey have a
good demand. Luckily the current
nesting tree fruited late compared to other palms in the vicinity, in June
only, by the time juveniles have become completely nest independent, protecting
the nestlings from the threat of fruit harvesting. Rarely
raptor nests are also sought after by folks performing black magic. These seem to be additional threats for
breeding success of palm nesting RHF, which already has impoverished fecundity
and a prolonged breeding period.
Conclusions
The results
indicate that the breeding location of RHF is more-or-less consistent over the
years and occur near human habitation since it prefers to occupy well-built
crow nests that can regularly meet a corresponding high prey demand during the
breeding season. In the study area,
Palmyra Palms are abundant and found to be preferred by crows for nesting and inturn, by the falcon. Though Palmyra Palms provide good
cover, hunt location and 3600 visibility,
it could also bring the risks of toddy and fruit extraction. The effect of landuse,
weather changes, pesticides, prey composition and its distribution on the
breeding of RHF need to be further investigated to understand the population
dynamics of this falcon and for bringing out a comprehensive conservation
action plan for the species.
References
Ali, S. (2002).
The Book of Indian Birds. Daniel, J.C. (ed). Bombay Natural History Society,
India, 121pp.
Baker, H.R. & C.M. Inglis
(1930). The Birds of southern India
including Madras, Malabar, Travancore, Cochin, Coorg
and Mysore. Government Press, Madras, India pp.i–xiii+1–504pp.
Barnes, H.E. (1886).
BirdsŐ nesting in Rajpootana.
Journal of
the Bombay Natural History Society 1(2):
38–62.
Bednarek, W. (1987). Breeding
Red-headed Merlin Falco chicquera chicquera in captivity, pp. 51–62. In: Breeding and
Management in Birds of Prey. Proceedings of the conference held at University
of Bristol, UK, i–viii+1-187pp.
BirdLife International (2014.) Falco chicquera. In: IUCN 2016.The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2014: e.T22727778A40810376. http://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-2.RLTS.T22727778A40810376.en
Downloaded on 21 September 2016.
BirdLife International (2016). Species factsheet: Falco chicquera. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/factsheet/22727778
Electronic version accessed on 21/09/2016
Bureau of Statistics and Evaluation (1976). Statstical Atlas of the Union
Territory of Pondicherry Comprising of Pondicherry, Karaikal,
Mahe & Yanam regions.
Government of Pondicherry, Photo-Zinco Press, Madras,
India, 1–39pp.
del Hoyo, J., N.J. Collar, D.A. Christie,
A. Elliott & L.D.C. Fishpool (2014). HBW
and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of
the Birds of the World - Vol. 1.
Lynx Edicions,Barcelona,
Spain & BirdLife International, Cambridge,UK, 900pp.
Dewar, D. (1905).
A list of the birds found in and about Madras. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 16(3): 484–498.
Dharap, R.N. (1977).
Red-headed Merlins nesting
in densely populated area. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 17(10): 11–12.
Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1955). Birds of Saurashtra, India: With additional notes on the birds of
Kutch and Gujarat. Published by
Author, Calcutta, i–liii+1–561pp.
eBird ( 2016).
Species Maps. http://ebird.org/ebird/map/ Electronic version accessed on 21
September 2016
Foysal, M. (2010). Study of the breeding behaviour of
Red-necked Falcon Falco chicquera around Dhaka, Bangladesh. BirdingASIA 13(2010): 64–67.
Foysal, M. (2015).
Observations of Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera (Aves: Falconiformes: Falconidae) nest at Keraniganj,
Dhaka, Bangladesh, with a focus on post-fledging behavior. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7(5): 7138–7145; http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3895.7138-45
Gole, P. (1980).
A March bird count in Poona. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 77(1): 49–55.
Govindakrishnan, P.M., A. Verghese
& A.K. Chakravarthy (1978). Occurrence of the Red-headed Merlin (Falco chicquera
Daudin) in Bangalore, Karnataka. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 75(2): 487
Ingalhallikar, S. (1988). Birds of Prey of Pune. Journal of Ecological Society 1: 59–65.
Inglis,C. M. (1899).
Birds collected during five yearsŐ residence in the Hylakandi
District of Cachar, Part VI. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 12(2): 286–291.
Islam, Z. & A.R. Rahmani
(2004). Important Bird Areas in India: Priority Sites for
Conservation. Bombay Natural History Society, Birdlife International, Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds & Oxford University Press,
833–837pp.
Naoroji, R. ( 2006). Birds of Prey of the Indian Subcontinent. Om Books International, Uttar Pradesh, India, 564–571pp.
Naoroji, R. (2011).
Breeding of the Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera in Saurashtra, Gujarat, India. Forktail 27(2011): 1–6.
Neelakantan, K.K. (1960).
On the occurrence of the Red-headed Merlin (Falco chiquera)
in Kerala. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 57(2): 409–411.
Nichols, E.G. (1944). Occurrence of birds in Madura District,
Part II. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 44(4): 574–584.
Osborne, T.O. (1981).
Ecology of The Red-Necked Falcon Falco Chicquera In Zambia. Ibis 123(3): 289–297.
Olwagen, C.D. & K. Olwagen (1984). Propagation of captive Red-necked Falcons Falco chicquera.
Koedoe 27(1): 45–59.
Praveen, E.S. & A.G. Sankar (2010). Recent sightings of Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera
from Kerala. Malabar
Trogon 8(2&3): 11–12.
Ramkumar, R. & M.G. Karthick (2005). Bird conservation and biodiversity in Forest College, Mettupalayam, pp. 6–8 In: New
initiatives for bird conservation: Student supplement. INCERT
& Newsletter for Birdwatchers, Bangalore.
Sodhi, N. (1991). Pair copulations, extra-pair
copulations, and intraspecific nest intrusions in Merlin. The Condor 93(2): 433–437.
Subramanya, S. (1980). Redheaded Merlin Falco chicquera. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 20(2): 3–5.
Subramanya, S. (1982). Nesting of Redheaded Merlin (Falco chicquera Daudin) in Bangalore,
Karnataka. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 79(2): 412–413.
Subramanya, S. (1985). Hunting and feeding habits of the
Redheaded Merlin Falco chicquera. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 25(1-2): 4–8.
Sugathan, R. (1982).
Some interesting aspects of the avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur
District, Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 79(3): 567–575.
Sugathan, R. & A.P. Varghese (1996). A review of the birds of Thattakad Bird Sanctuary, Kerala. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 93(3):
487–506.
Tiwari, J.K. (2000).
Redheaded Falcon sightings in Kutch. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 40(3): 37–38.
Villarroel, M., D.M. Bird & U. Kuhnlein (1998). Copulatory behaviour
and paternity in the American Kestrel: the adaptive
significance of frequent copulations. Animal Behaviour 56(2): 289-299; http://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1998.0788
Webb-Peploe, C.G. (1945). Notes on a few birds from the South of
the Tinnevelly District. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 45(3):
425–426.
Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993). The birds of Wynaad,
southern India. Forktail 8:
11–23.