Journal of
Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2018 | 10(8): 12086–12090
First photographic
evidence of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia
(Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae)
outside current protected areas network in Nepal Himalaya
Rinzin Phunjok Lama 1, Tashi R. Ghale 2, Madan K. Suwal 3,
Rishi Ranabhat 4 & Ganga Ram Regmi
5
1,2,3,5 Global Primate Network-Nepal,
GPO Box 26288, Kathmandu, Nepal
3 Department of Geography, University
of Bergen, Fosswinckelsgt 6, PB 7802, N - 5020
Bergen, Norway
4 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal,
Kathmandu, Nepal
1 Workgroup on Endangered Species,
J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
1 rinzinplama@gmail.com, 2 tashirghale@gmail.com,
3 madanksuwal@gmail.com, 4 ranabhatrishi@gmail.com, 5
regmigr1978@gmail.com (corresponding author)
Abstract: The Snow Leopard Panthera uncia is a
rare top predator of high-altitude ecosystems and insufficiently surveyed
outside of protected areas in Nepal. We
conducted a rapid camera-trapping survey to assess the presence of Snow Leopard
in the Limi valley of Humla
District. Three individuals were
recorded in two camera locations offering the first photographic evidence of
this elusive cat outside the protected area network of Nepal. In addition to
Snow Leopard, the Blue Sheep Pseudois nayaur, Beech Marten Martes
foina, Pika Ochotona spp. and different species of birds were
also detected by camera-traps. More
extensive surveys and monitoring are needed for reliably estimating the
population size of Snow Leopard in the area.
The most urgent needs are community-based conservation activities aimed
at mitigating immediate threats of poaching, retaliatory killing, and rapid
prey depletion to ensure the survival of this top predator in the Himalaya.
Keywords: Camera-trapping,
conservation, Humla, livestock depredation,
monasteries, non-timber forest products, retaliatory killing, Tibetan Buddhism.
doi: http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3031.10.8.12086-12090
| ZooBank:
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:BA0E0E04-6D20-4525-BB7F-83C6B946EFCF
Editor: Jim Sanderson, Small Wild Cat Conservation Foundation, Hartford, USA. Date of publication: 26 July 2018
(online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms
# 3031 | Received 28 May 2017 | Final received 07 June 2018 | Finally accepted
27 June 2018
Citation: Lama, R.P., T.R. Ghale, M.K. Suwal, R. Ranabhat
& G.R. Regmi (2018). First photographic
evidence of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) outside current protected areas network in Nepal
Himalaya. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(8): 12086–12090; http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3031.10.8.12086-12090
Copyright: © Lama et al. 2018. Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT
allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and
distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of
publication.
Funding: Funding was obtained from Snow Leopard
Conservation Grant (Snow Leopard Network, USA)
and Nagao Natural Environmental Foundation, Japan. Field equipment were
obtained from Snow Leopard Conservancy, USA and Global Primate Network-Nepal.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Acknowledgements: This work was financially supported by Snow Leopard Network,
Seattle, USA and Nagao Natural Environment Foundation, Tokyo, Japan. Snow Leopard Conservancy
and Global Primate Network Nepal provided camera traps and other field
equipment. Department of Forest/Government
of Nepal provided the research permission to carry out this work. We are thankful of K. Kandel,
F. Huettmann, T. R. Ghimire
and R. Jackson for their support and encouragement throughout the project. A. Ghoddousi
provided initial comments and I. Khorozyan provided a
detailed review which helped improve this
manuscript. This work would not have
been possible without the tireless support of local field assistants Chhapral Lama and Chhayang
Lama. We also thank all local people of
the Limi Valley who supported us with vital
information during the study.
The Snow
Leopard Panthera uncia
is distributed throughout northern Nepal along the boundary with China over an
area of 22,625.34km2 (Aryal et al.
2016). Snow Leopards research and
conservation activities have been focused mostly on protected areas (PA) of
Nepal (Jackson & Alhborn 1989; Oli 1991; Kyes & Chalise 2005; Khatiwada et al.
2007; Ale 2007; Ale et al. 2007; Devkota 2010; Karmacharya et al. 2011; Wegge et
al. 2012; Aryal et al. 2014, 2016). To date, research institutions,
conservationists and students have given very low priority to surveys and
monitoring of Snow Leopard outside Nepal’s PAs, in spite of the existence of
suitable habitat. A few Snow Leopard
studies based on sign surveys were conducted outside PAs in Humla
District (R. Jackson in litt. 2003; Khatiwada & Ghimirey 2009; FoN 2014) and Bhajang District (FoN 2014). Of the
total potential habitats preferred by Snow Leopards in Nepal, 65% were located
outside PAs (Jackson & Ahlborn 1990). More recent species distribution modeling,
however, shows that only 34% of the total Snow Leopard habitat in Nepal lies
outside the PA network, comprising a significant portion of potential
unprotected habitats located in western Nepal, including Humla,
Bajhang, and Bajura (Aryal et al. 2016).
The paucity of
surveys and the resulting lack of reliable data for unprotected lands
presumably increases leopard vulnerability to local extinction from poaching
and retaliatory killing (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2017), and
lack of effective government actions against poaching and wildlife trade
aggravates the situation. Therefore,
urgent collection of baseline data on Snow Leopard presence, distribution and
status outside of PAs is warranted. To
date, information on distribution and status of Snow Leopard is mostly based on
anecdotal evidence and few sign surveys (Jackson & Hunter 1995). Due to challenging habitat structure, site
accessibility and the cryptic nature of this felid species, direct sighting
such as detection is virtually impossible (Jackson et al. 2006; Ale & Brown
2009). Camera trapping is a preferred
method for detecting such rare and elusive species. In addition, sign surveys and local
residents’ interviews generally lack scientific rigor for reliable status
assessment (Jackson et al. 2006).
Considering these facts, we conducted the first ever camera-trapping
survey of Snow Leopards in the Limi valley of Humla District of Nepal.
The findings of this study will make an important baseline for future
monitoring and help government and conservation partners in conservation
planning.
Materials and Methods
Study Area
Limi Valley is located in the trans-Himalayan
steppe environment in Humla District of Nepal (Fig.
1), covering an area of ca. 1200km2 and including three villages (Halji, Jang, and Til) with 181
households and a total population of 904 humans. Historically, Limi
residents depended on traditional barter economies and semi-nomadic animal
husbandry. Now, trans-boundary grazing
restrictions imposed by China compel community members to reduce livestock
holdings and search for new economic options.
Carving of Phuru, a wooden bowl made from
maple knots, is an old and highly demanded economic activity for the people
living in the upper part of Humla including the Limi Valley (R.P. Lama pers. obs. 2007–2015). Trade and seasonal migrant labor work in the
neighboring Chinese town also significantly contribute to the local economy.
The Mt. Gurla Mandata range divides Limi Valley into the southern and northern parts. The southern part has river valleys,
settlements, agricultural lands, patches of open forest, rocky outcrops and
broken terrain making favorable habitats for species like Blue Sheep Pseudois nayaur,
Snow Leopard, Beech Marten Martes foina, and Tallus-dwelling Pikas Ochotona roylei, while the northern side of the range consists
of plain steppe grasslands supporting the plateau species such as Tibetan Wild
Ass Equus kiang, Plateau Pika Ochotona curzoniae, Tibetan Gazelle Procapra
picticaudata, Tibetan Argali Sheep Ovis ammon hodgsoni, Wild Yak Bos
grunniens and Himalayan Wolf Canis
Lupus himalayensis (Werhahn
et al. 2017).
Site selection and camera trapping
We conducted a camera-trapping survey in the Limi Valley during July and August,
2015 to conduct a rapid assessment of Snow Leopard status. We divided the total study area into 5x5 km2
grid cells considering 24km2 (11–37 km2) as the minimum
home range of the Snow Leopard in western Nepal (Jackson 1996) and placed one
or two cameras in each grid. Due to time
limitations we could not cover an entire study area and placed camera-traps
only in the least disturbed locations where we frequently observed Snow Leopard
signs. We set up 17 Bushnell Trophy HD
cameras in 17 locations (Fig. 1) within 10 grids following preferred habitat
features like ridgelines, travel corridors and marking sites (Jackson et al.
2006). A minimum distance between
camera-traps was kept at 2.5km, and they were placed at elevations from
3,092–4,608 m. Since the purpose of this
preliminary survey was to assess the presence of Snow Leopard, we did not
account for spatial autocorrelation of camera-trap sites. One camera-trap was lost thus only data from
the remaining 16 camera-traps were used in the analysis.
Data management and analysis
We managed
camera-trap images using the program described by Sanderson & Harris
(2013). We defined capture events as
independent images of a species at a location captured at least 60 minutes
apart. We computed the relative
abundance index (RAI) for all the mammals, birds and human recorded during the
surveys. RAI was expressed as the number
of independent images per 100 trap-nights (Sanderson & Harris 2013; Jenks
et al. 2011).
Results
Relative Abundance Index (RAI)
A total survey
effort of 195 trap-nights recorded 39,839 images from 16 camera traps. We sorted out and analyzed images of mammals,
birds and human (n = 1,110) and discarded the ghosts, i.e., false images and
also the unknown images (n = 38,729).
The survey recorded 95 independent images of four species of mammals:
Snow Leopard (n = 6 images), Blue Sheep (n = 6 images), Beech Marten (n = 14
images), and Pikas (n = 69 images). In addition to mammals, images of different
species birds (n = 711 images) and human (n = 99 images) were also recorded. The birds had the highest RAI of 45.00
captures/100 trap-nights followed by Pika (30.45),
human (13.64), Beech Marten (5.45), Snow Leopard (2.73), and Blue Sheep (2.73)
(Table 1).
Photographic evidence of Snow Leopard
Snow Leopard
was captured in two different locations (Til Gomba and Chhongerche) and the
time to first detection was 16 days. We
used pelage patterns (Jackson et al. 2006; Ale et al. 2014) to identify
different individuals from camera-trap pictures. The dorsal side of the tail, forelegs, right
hind legs and right flanks were particularly informative. We recorded total of three individuals,
including two adults and one sub-adult (Image 1). In Til Gomba, individual 1 was recorded on 28 July 2015 from
00:06:05 h to 00:36:04 h (1a in Image 1) and individual 2 was captured on 30
July 2015 from 23:16:40–23:22:42 hr (2a in Image
1). The adjoining location Chhongerche also produced two events. Individual 3 was captured on 28 July 2015
from 17:14:36–17:14:37 hr (3b in Image 1) and
individual 2 was captured on 31 July 2015 from 03:37:45–03:38:45 hr (2b in Image 1).
In Til Gomba,
individuals 1 and 2 were captured while scraping on the surface. In Chhongerche,
individual 3 was captured while scent-marking a rock (3b in Image 1). Both these locations are dominated by broken
terrain and cliffs providing good habitats for Snow Leopard and the middle
elevations contain open areas with good grazing grounds for Blue Sheep.
Discussion
This is the
first camera-trapping survey in the Limi Valley that
successfully recorded Snow Leopards during a short survey period in two
locations. An opportunistic survey
carried out in early 2000 suggested the presence of Snow Leopards in the Limi Valley (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2017). A study conducted in 2007 in the
adjoining area which included some parts of the Limi Valley also showed a good abundance of Snow Leopard
signs (Khatiwada & Ghimirey
2009). In May 2007, the first author
observed two adult Snow Leopards in Til Gomba where we obtained camera-trap pictures during this
study. Additionally, four independent
sightings of Snow Leopards were reported around Halij
Village in the winter of 2011 (A. Hovden pers. comm.
2012). High encounter rates of Snow
Leopards are reported in the inner part of Limi Valley,
including Ningkhola, Rakaru
and Hel, mostly during winter and spring (P. Tamang
pers. comm. 2015). A female with three
cubs was sighted in Rakaru in the winter of 2014 (P. Tamang pers. comm. 2015) and another female with two cubs
was sighted at a goat kill site in Takchi in July
2015 (N. Tamang pers. comm. 2015). Apart from photographic evidence of Snow
Leopard presence, this study also provides the relative abundance of four
mammal species, including the Snow Leopard and its main prey Blue Sheep.
Limi Valley is inhabited by people of Tibetan
origin and the local culture is
strongly influenced by Buddhist beliefs. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries serve as
cultural centers for non-violence and conservation actions (T. Lama pers. comm.
2017); for example in the Sanjiangyuan region of
Tibet, monasteries have played an important role in conserving Snow Leopards
and their habitats (Li et al. 2013 ). The Limi Valley is
locally protected by the 1000-year-old Buddhist Monastery Rinchhen
Ling, and no hunting and harvesting of medicinal herbs is allowed
here. People violating these rules are
strictly fined; however, at present this area is vulnerable to encroachment by
poachers and harvesters from outside, as the valley is rich in wildlife and
medicinal and aromatic plants (R.P. Lama pers. obs. 2015). Depredation of livestock by Snow Leopards and
Wolves Canis lupus is frequent in the
valley (R.P. Lama pers. obs. 2015), and leopards can also enter
houses. Fear of attack and economic
losses have negative impacts on local livelihoods, and motivate retaliatory
killings. A female Snow Leopard was
killed after a mass killing of goats (25 in a single night) in Halji Village in 2007 (FoN
2014). Similarly, a female Snow Leopard
with two cubs was trapped in Til Village in 2011 (FoN 2014) after being perceived as a threat to
livestock. A male Snow Leopard that
entered Jang Village was killed in the winter of 2012 after attacking several
goats inside a house (Local people pers. comm. 2015).
This survey
confirms the presence of Snow Leopard in Limi Valley
in Humla by successfully bringing the first
photographic evidence to supplement previous local sightings and indirect
signs. Implementation of predator-friendly
human-leopard interaction measures such as predator-proofed corrals, improved
husbandry practices, conservation education and livelihood improvement programs
are recommended to ensure the survival of Snow Leopards in the Limi Valley.
Table 1. The relative abundance index (RAI) and elevations of
mammal, birds and human camera-trap record locations in the Limi
Valley.
Taxa |
RAI (number of independent camera-trap captures/100 trap-nights) |
Minimum elevation (m) |
Maximum elevation (m) |
Birds |
45.00 |
3928 |
4608 |
Blue sheep |
2.73 |
3928 |
4054 |
Human |
13.64 |
3902 |
4608 |
Pika |
30.45 |
3920 |
4367 |
Snow Leopard |
2.73 |
3902 |
3928 |
Beech Marten |
5.45 |
3928 |
4608 |
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