Journal
of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 November 2020 | 12(15):
17138–17146
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2947.12.15.17138-17146
#2947 | Received 07 September 2020 | Final received 06
November 2020 | Finally accepted 09 November 2020
Occurrence of the Aporrectodea caliginosa
caliginosa (Savigny, 1826)
(Annelida: Clitellata:
Haplotaxida) from Kashmir Valley, Jammu &
Kashmir, India
Ishtiyaq Ahmed Najar
1, Anisa B. Khan 2 &
Abdul Hai 3
1 Department of Environmental
Sciences, G. D. College, Ganderbal, Jammu and Kashmir
191201, India.
2 Department of Ecology and
Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
3 Department of Zoology, A.A.A.M.
Degree College, Bemina, Jammu and Kashmir 190018,
India.
1 ishtiyaq.env@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 anisabasheer@gmail.com, 3 abdulhai596@yahoo.com
Editor: Shweta Yadav, Doctor Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya
(A Central University), Sagar, India. Date
of publication: 26 November 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Najar, I.A., A.B. Khan & A. Hai (2020). Occurrence of
the Aporrectodea caliginosa
caliginosa (Savigny, 1826) (Annelida: Clitellata: Haplotaxida) from
Kashmir Valley, Jammu & Kashmir, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(15): 17138–17146. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2947.12.15.17138-17146
Copyright: © Najar et al. 2020. Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction,
and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to
the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: No research funding
was involved in the study.
Author details: Ishtiyaq Ahmed Najar is Assistant
Professor in Environmental Sciences, Govt. Degree College, Ganderbal,
J&K, India. His research specialization includes soil ecology,
management of fresh water weeds
and water quality
monitoring. Anisa B. Khan is research supervisor and her research field includes vermicomposting, phytoremediation
and GIS applications at Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry Central University, Puducherry,
India. Abdul Hai is Associate Professor in Department
of Zoology, Abdul Ahad Azad Degree Memorial College, Bemina Srinagar, J&K,
India. His specialization
includes soil fauna and parasitology.
Author contribution:
ABK and
IAN conceptualized the study. IAN conducted the field work and analysis of samples with technical support by AH. All the three
authors contribute to the synthesis
of manuscript, however ABK supervised
the overall study.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Acknowledgements: The authors express their thanks
to Dr. J.M. Julka and Dr. R. Paliwal of Zoological
Survey of India, Kolkata for taxonomic identification of the earthworm species.
Abstract: The paper describes the
earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa
caliginosa (Savigny, 1826) of class Clitellata, order Opisthopora and
family Lumbricidae, from Kashmir Valley, Jammu &
Kashmir, India. Previously the species
was recorded from Himachal Pradesh, and in the present study the species is
reported from Gulmarg forest within the geographical coordinates of (34.0500N
& 74.3880E). During the
study the seasonal variation of A.c.
caliginosa in terms of density and biomass along
with the soil physiochemical characteristics were reported. A.c.
caliginosa showed significant variation in
density (t=3.34, p<0.044) and biomass (t=3.40, p<0.042)
among different seasons, with maximum density (129.6/m2) and biomass
(26.90g/m2) during spring, and minimal values of 34.33/m2
and 6.94g/m2 during winter respectively. Soil physiochemical characteristics also
varied significantly among seasons.
Keywords: Biomass, density, earthworm,
Kashmir Valley, soil physiochemical.
Introduction
Human activities are causing
major shifts in the community composition of biological systems by transporting
species across biogeographic barriers (Wardle & Peltzer
2017). Invasion of exotic earthworms is
increasing worldwide (Lee 1985; Fragoso et al. 1999), apparently facilitated by
global commerce with the importation of soil-containing materials (agricultural
and horticultural products) for commercial applications (waste management and
land bioremediation). Invasive
earthworms are also continuing their expansion into earthworm-free zones (Tiunov et al. 2006), where they may have large ecological
impacts (Bohlen et al. 2004; Frelich et al. 2006).
Globally, 4,400 earthworm species
are known (Sinha 2009), most having restricted ranges (Reynolds 1994). Julka et al.
(2009), Blakemore (2008), and Julka (2014) reported
more than 500 species of earthworms from India, belonging to 10 families and 69
genera (Dash 2012; Kathireswari 2016). In comparison to other Asian countries,
earthworms are well studied in India (Bisht et al. 2003; Tripathi &
Bhardwaj 2004; Sathianarayanan & Khan 2006; Karmegam & Daniel 2007; Chaudhuri et al. 2008; Goswami & Mondal 2015; Deepthi & Kathireswari 2016; Narayanan et al. 2017, 2019; Rajwar et al. 2018; Lone et al. 2020), while there is
paucity of information on the earthworms of the Kashmir Valley aside from the
important contributions of Stephenson (1922), Sharma & Kaul (1974), Paliwal & Julka (2005), Najar & Khan (2011a,b,c, 2014), and Mir & Najar (2016).
Earthworms play a key role in the improvement of soil, making nutrients
available to plants and thus enhancing crop yields (Najar
& Khan 2013a,b; Najar 2017).
The first record of earthworms
from the Indian subcontinent was provided by Templeton (1844). Subsequently followed by Michaelsen
(1907), Stephenson (1923, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1931), Gates (1940, 1945a,b,
1972a), Julka (1976, 1978, 1981, 1993), Kale & Krishnamoorty (1978a,b), Julka
& Senapati (1987), Bhadauria & Ramakrishnan
(1989), Ismail et al. (1990), Bano & Kale (1991),
Blanchart & Julka
(1997), Chaudhuri & Bhattacharjee (1999), Bhadauria
et al. (2000), Bisht et al. (2003), Srivastava et al. (2003), Tripathi &
Bhardwaj (2004), Paliwal & Julka
(2005), Sathianarayanan & Khan (2006), Karmegam & Daniel (2007), Chaudhuri et al. (2008),
Joshi & Aga (2009), Chaudhuri & Bhattacharjee (2011), Chaudhuri &
Nath (2011) Verma & Shweta (2011), Najar & Khan (2011a,b,c, 2014), Chaudhuri & Dey (2012), Siddaraju et al.
(2013), Dey & Chaudhuri (2013, 2014).
Aporrectodea caliginosa
caliginosa is a typical synanthropic
species and thrives in pastures, gardens and forests of the temperate
zone. Miller et al. (1955) stated its
possibility in every type of substrate, even in the poorest sandy soil. In disturbed ecosystems it can displace
populations of native worms in a short span of time. According to Bouche’s
(1977) ecological characterization, A.c.
caliginosa belongs to the endogeic
group, living and feeding in the mineral soil layer.
Gulmarg is located in the Pir Pinjal range of the Himalayan
Mountains of Kashmir Valley (Jammu & Kashmir) India. It is at a distance of 52km from Srinagar,
the capital of Jammu & Kashmir to its southwest, at an altitude of 2,450m
(Fig. 1). It is famous for retaining
several rare and endangered species with a rich and varied avifauna. The area holds a rich cover of vegetation,
the dominant forest consisting of conifers, which account for over 90%. The principal species are Cedrus
Deodara, Abies
Pindrow, and Pinus wallichaina. The dominant tree species at the site is P.
wallichaina with a rich ground cover
comprising of Leucanthemu vulgare, Cyanodon dectylon,
and Trifolium repens.
Materials
and Methods
Earthworm and soil sampling
Earthworm samples were collected
by digging soil monolith (25 x 25 x 30 cm) and hand sorting. Worms were sorted into clitellates,
non-clitellates (>4cm, without clitellum but have genital markings) and
juveniles (<4cm, lack of genital marking, tumescences
and clitellum) following Zorn et al. (2005), preserved in 4% formalin and sent
to Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata for taxonomic
identification. The specimens were
deposited in the Museum, Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences,
Pondicherry Central University, (DEES-A: 03/2009) housed in Kalapet,
Puducherry, India.
Soil analysis
Composite soil samples comprising
of three subsamples were analyzed using standard protocols. Soil temperature
measured by soil thermometer and soil moisture by gravimetric method
(Gupta 1999); pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and organic nitrogen (ON) by micro
Kjeldahl method (Jackson 1973); soil texture by the
international pipette method (Gee & Bauder 1986);
organic carbon (OC) by Walkley & Black (1934).
Data analyses
Data sets were subjected to t-test
in order to determine differences among the parameters. Statistical analyses
and graphical presentations were performed using SPSS statistical software
(Version 16) and PAST statistical software (Version 1.93).
Results
and Discussion
Aporrectodea caliginosa
species complex
includes three species, A. caliginosa s.s. (Savigny, 1826), A. trapezoides
(Duges, 1828), and A. nocturna
(Evans, 1946) and one subspecies, A. c. tuberculata
(Eisen, 1874), although this view has been challenged several times. Because of their similarity, the taxonomic
status of the taxa within A. caliginosa
species complex is a matter of debate for more than a century. Based on morphological data, A. caliginosa s.s., A.
trapezoides, and A. nocturna
were initially described as distinct species, whereas A. tuberculata was described as a subspecies of A.
caliginosa.
Michaelsen (1900) noticed that some of these
taxa were closely related and included them in a species complex, but he
suggested that they belong to a single species with two subspecies: A. caliginosa caliginosa
and A. c. trapezoides and
considered the other taxa as synonymous to A. caliginosa. Omodeo (1952) and Casellato (1987) considered A. trapezoides
as the polyploidal variety of A. caliginosa s.s.
Gates (1972b) disagreed with Michaelsen (1900) and
separated them into four distinct species [A. caliginosa
s.s. (namely, A. turgida
Eisen 1874), A. tuberculata, A.
trapezoides, and A. nocturna]. The same year, however, Bouche (1972) split
them into two species and placed them into a different genus, Nicodrilus caliginosus
(A. caliginosa) and N. nocturnus (A. nocturna),
with the former species composed of three subspecies: N. c. caliginosus (A. c. caliginosa),
N. c. alternisetosus (A. tuberculata) and N. c. meridionalis (A. trapezoides). Finally, almost a century after Michaelsen’s study, Briones (1996) resurrected his initial
proposal suggesting that the A. caliginosa
species complex is composed of one species with two subspecies - A. caliginosa caliginosa
and A. c. trapezoides (Pérez-Losada et al. 2009).
Paliwal & Julka
(2005) in the checklist of earthworms of western Himalaya reported A. c.
caliginosa species from Himachal Pradesh.
Its diagnosis is summarized in
Image 1 comprising: length 60–160 mm; diameter 4–6 mm. segments 104– 248. Colour variable in
life, grey, flesh-colour, brown, yellowish,
slate-blue, but never purple. Prostomium
epilobous 1/3, tongue cut off behind. Dorsal pores from 9/10 or less often
8/9. Setae closely paired, the lateral
especially closely; aa greater than bc; dd=half the circumference or somewhat less. Clitellum saddle shaped, xxvi, xxvii, or
xxviii to xxxiv or xxxv (= 7–10).
Tubercles of puberty two pairs on xxxi and xxxiii. Male pores in transverse slits, on usually
much elevated glandular areas, which take up xiv-xvi. Spermathecal pores two pairs, in 9/10 and
10/11, on cd. Setae ab of ix, x, and xi
usually on broad papillae, transformed into genital setae, grooved, somewhat
longer and thinner than the normal setae, slightly curved. Septa 5/6–9/10 thickened, 7/8 most so. Seminal vesicles of ix and x small (Stephensen 1923).
The natural rate of dispersal of
an established earthworm population is relatively slow and is of rate of 5–10
m/year (Lee 1985; Marinissen & van den Bosch
1992; Dymond et al. 1997; Hale et al. 2005). Thus, anthrochorous
dispersion has likely played a key role in the spreading of earthworm
populations across different geographical regions. According to Hendrix (2006) there is mounting
evidence that exotic earthworm invasions are increasing worldwide, sometimes
with significant effects on soil processes and plant communities. At least 100 earthworm species have
distributions beyond their places of origin (Lee 1985; Fragoso et al.
1999). Earthworm introductions to new
geographical areas appear to be facilitated by global commerce, both
inadvertently with the importation of soil-containing materials (agricultural
and horticultural products) and intentionally for use in commercial
applications (waste management and land bioremediation).
There are many theories regarding
the dispersal of earthworms. Medium to
long range dispersal is attributable to earthworms escaping to the soil surface
after heavy rains, followed by wash-off of cocoons and earthworms, and eventual
further transport by streams. Birds also
import earthworm cocoons to new areas through mud on their feet (Eijsackers 2011).
Lee (1985) and Schwert (1980) also attributed
cocoon dispersal partly to avian phoresy.
Earthworms have been recently introduced to the South Sea islands Gough
and Marion, probably by birds, although human transport seems to have the
greatest impact (Lee 1985; James & Hendrix 2004).
Humans play a dominant role in
earthworm introduction and redistribution by transporting soil and plant
materials (Eijsackers 2011). Plisko (2001)
observed that the distribution of exotic species exhibited proximity to urban
and agricultural areas, in addition to dispersal through plant material and
adhering soil. Proulx (2003) and Hale
& Host (2005) found a relationship between dispersal and an anthropogenic
index. Holdsworth
et al. (2007) found a relationship between earthworm distribution and distance
to roads, whereas Cameron & Bayne (2009) correlated the distribution of
exotic earthworm species with road age and reported transportation as the most
important distribution factors.
According to Julka
(1988), earthworms in India have been introduced to new areas by man and other
agencies with the importation of soil-containing materials (plants,
agricultural and horticultural products), and species colonize successfully due
to their inherent ability to withstand disturbance and interference. Gonzalez et al. (2006) reported the
reproductive biology of species as an important characteristic in successful
establishment. Further, high fecundity,
short incubation periods and high hatching success are also likely adaptive
strategies that enable survival of drastic environmental changes (Bhattacharjee
& Chaudhuri 2002). Environmental
plasticity and ability to aestivate appear to make some earthworms particularly
successful as invaders (Fragoso et al. 1999; James & Hendrix 2004). According to Bengtson et al. (1979), the
aestivation capability of A. caliginosa
makes it a successful colonizer during adverse drought conditions and able to
tolerate a wide range of soil moisture (35–65 %; Zorn et al. 2008) and pH
(3.7–8.5). Further biological traits of Aporrectodea sp. such as tolerance to varying
environmental conditions, rapid growth, and ability to live under a wide range
of land uses and soils (Winsome et al. 2006), could give it a competitive
advantage to successfully establish and dominate in different pedoecosystems.
The population size and species
composition of earthworm communities is dependent upon soil texture, pH,
moisture, and the palatability and quantity of litter (Lavelle 1997; Bohlen et
al. 2004). A. c. caliginosa exhibited significant variation in
population density (t=3.34, p<0.044) and biomass (t=3.40,
p<0.042) among different seasons is shown in Figure 2. Population density varied from 34.33/m2
to 129.6/m2 during winter and spring respectively. The biomass also ranged from 6.94g/m2
during winter to 26.90g/m2 during spring. Population density was minimum during winter
which is attributed to low temperature which causes delay in hatching of
cocoons (Timmerman et al. 2006). Najar & Khan (2011a) also reported that earthworms were
most abundant during spring and attributed it to the optimum moisture and
temperature conditions. Complete
cessation of cocoon production was observed by Nairw
& Bennour (1998) during summer in A. caliginosa due to high temperature.
A variety of environmental
factors such as soil texture, soil moisture, pH, temperature, organic content
have been suggested as determinants for the distribution and abundance of
earthworms (Bisht et al. 2003). Soil
characteristics of the site are given in Figure 3. A.c. caliginosa was found within the pH range of 5.73 ±
0.09 to 5.99 ± 0.21. EC exhibited a value between 0.11 ± 0.01 to 0.17 ± 0.01 mS/m and varied significantly among the seasons (t =
10.40, p < 0.002). Moisture
showed significant variation (t=12.64, p<0.001) among the
seasons and ranged from 22.5±0.84 % to 31.4±3.52 %. Soil temperate was recorded 4.66±1.54 to
14.33±1.83 0C and exhibited significant variation (t=4.36, p<0.022)
among the seasons during the study period.
Organic nitrogen varied significantly (t=4.00, p<0.028)
over the period and showed a range of 0.42 ± 0.08 to 1.26 ± 0.16 g/kg. Organic carbon significantly varied (t=15.72,
p<0.001) with seasonal changes and ranged from 9.1±0.34 to 12.3±0.70
g/kg. The soil comprises 7.33% clay,
36.24% sand and 56.40% silt represented by silt loam class of soil texture
Figure 4. According to Edwards, (2004)
majority of the temperate earthworm species are found within the pH range 5.0
to 7.4 and A. caliginosa was reported
at a pH range of 5.2 to 5.4 (Edwards & Lofty 1972). According to Nair & Bennour
(1997) A. caliginosa can
tolerate a wide range of temperature fluctuations and can be one of the reasons
for its dominance in Benghazi soils (Libya).
A. caliginosa is one of the most
abundant earthworm species on agricultural lands in the temperate zone (Perez-Losada et al. 2009) and is found on all continents (except
Antarctica) in agricultural and native ecosystems (Michaelsen
1903; Paoletti 1999; Baker et al. 2006; Hendrix et
al. 2008; Blakemore 2009; Shekhovtsov et al. 2015). It is generally accepted that A. caliginosa is an European species that has been
dispersed by means of human mediated transport to other parts of the world (Paoletti 1999) and in Russia, it is believed to displace
native earthworms in some locations and to continue its eastward and northward
expansion (Striganova & Porjadina
2005; Tiunov et al. 2006).
Overall, the pattern of earthworm
invasion closely resembles the ‘‘jump dispersal’’ model of Shigesada
et al. (1995). There is a probability of
colonization of distant localities which may be directly dependent on the
availability of dispersal opportunities from the source and the time since
initial colonization (MacIsaac et al. 2001).
Conclusion
A.c. caliginosa
is an addition to the checklist of earthworms from Kashmir Valley, Jammu &
Kashmir, India. It’s biological
characteristics and tolerance to varying environmental conditions helps them to
encounter competitive challenges and make them successful to establish in new
areas.
For
figures & image - - click here
References
Baker, G.H., R. Brown, K. Butt, P. Curry & J. Scullion (2006). Introduced
earthworms in agricultural and reclaimed land: their ecology and influences on
soil properties, plant production and other soil biota. Biological Invasions
8: 1301–1316.
Bano, K. &
R. Kale (1991). Earthworm fauna of southern Karnataka, India, pp. 627–634. In: Veeresh. G.K., D. Rajagopal & C.A. Viraktamath
(eds.). Advances in Management and Conversion of Fauna. Oxford and IBH.
New Delhi, India.
Bengtson, S.A., A. Nilsson, S. Nordström &
S. Rundgren (1979).
Short-term colonization success of Lumbricid founder populations. Oikos
33: 308–315.
Bhadauria, T. &
P.S. Ramakrishnan (1989). Earthworm population dynamics and
contribution to nutrient cycling during cropping and fallow phases of shifting
agriculture (Jhum) in north east India. Journal of Applied Ecology 26:
505–520. https://doi.org/10.2307/2404077
Bhadauria, T., P.S. Ramakrishnana & K.N. Srivastava (2000). Diversity
and distribution of endemic and exotic earthworms in natural and regenerating
ecosystems in the central Himalayas, India. Soil Biology and Biochemistry
32: 2045–2054. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00106-1
Bhattacharjee, G. & P.S. Chaudhuri (2002). Cocoon
production, morphology, hatching pattern and fecundity in seven tropical
earthworm species: a laboratory-based investigation. Journal of Bioscience
27: 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02704917
Bisht, R., H. Pandey, D. Bharti & B.R. Kaushal (2003). Population
dynamics of earthworms (Oligochaeta) in cultivated
soil of central Himalayan tarai region. Tropical
Ecology 44: 221–226.
Blakemore, R.J. (2008). Indian earthworms. In.
Blakemore, R.J. (ed.). A Series of Searchable Texts on Earthworm Biodiversity,
Ecology and Systematics from Various Regions of the World - Supplemental.
[Online: http://www.annelida.net/earthworm].
Blakemore, R.J. (2009). Cosmopolitan earthworms-a
global and historical perspective, pp. 257–283. In: Shain,
D.H. (ed.). Annelids in Modern Biology. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken.
Blanchart, E. &
J.M. Julka (1997). Influence
of forest distribuances on earthworm (Oligochaeta) communities in the Western Ghats (South
India). Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29(3/4): 303–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00094-6
Bohlen, P.J., P.M. Groffman, T.J. Fahey, M.C.
Fisk, E. Suárez, D. Pelletier & R. Fahey (2004). Ecosystem
consequences of exotic earthworm invasion of north temperate forests. Ecosystems
7: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-003-0126-z
Bouche, M.B. (1972). Lombriciens
de France, Écologie et Systématique.
INRA, Paris, 671pp.
Bouche, M.B. (1977). Strategies lombricieniennes.
Biological Bulletin (Stockholm) 25: 122–132.
Briones, M.J.I. (1996). A taxonomic study of the Allolobophora caliginosa
complex (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae):
a preliminary study. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74: 240–244.
Cameron, E.K. & E.M. Bayne (2009). Road age
and its importance in earthworm invasions of northern boreal forests. Journal
of Applied Ecology 46: 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01535.x
Casellato, S.
(1987). On polyploidy in oligochaetes with particular reference to Lumbricidae, pp. 75–84. In: Pagliai,
A.M.B., & P. Omodeo (eds.). Proceedings on
International Symposium on Earthworms. Mucchi Editore, Modena.
Chaudhuri, P.S. & A. Dey (2012). Earthworm
Communities in the Pineapple (Ananus comosus) and Mixed Fruit Plantations of West Tripura,
India. Proceedings of Zoological Society 66: 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12595-012-0047-y
Chaudhuri, P.S. & G. Bhattacharjee (1999). Earthworm
resources of Tripura. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences India
69(B): 159–170.
Chaudhuri, P.S. & S. Bhattacharjee (2011).
Reproductive biology of eight tropical earthworm species of rubber plantations in
Tripura, India. Tropical Ecology 52(1): 49–60.
Chaudhuri, P.S. & S. Nath (2011). Community
structure of earthworms under rubber plantations and mixed forests in Tripura,
India. Journal of Environmental Biology 32: 537–541.
Chaudhuri, P.S., S. Nath & R. Paliwal
(2008). Earthworm population of rubber plantations (Hevea
brasiliensis) in Tripura, India. Tropical
ecology 49: 225–234.
Dash, M.C. (2012). Charles Darwin’s Plough: Tools for Vermitechnology. I.K International, New Delhi, 185pp.
Deepthi, M.P. & P. Kathireswari (2016). Earthworm
Diversity and Analysis of Soil Inhabited by Earthworms in the Vatakara area, Kozhikode, Kerala, India. International
Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science 5(3): 917-925. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2016.
503.106
Dey, A &
P.S. Chaudhuri (2013). Ecological studies on earthworm communities of
pineapple (Ananas comosus)
plantations under monoculture in West Tripura (India). International Journal
of Advanced Biosciences 1(2): 17–23.
Dey, A. &
P. S. Chaudhuri (2014). Earthworm community structure of pineapple (Ananas comosus)
plantations under monoculture and mixed culture in West Tripura, India. Tropical
Ecology 55(1): 1–17.
Duges, A.
(1828). Recherche sur la circulation, la respiration etal
reproduction des Annelides setigeres
abranches. Annales Des Sciences Naturelles 15: 284-336.
Dymond, P., S.
Scheu & D. Parkinson (1997). Density and distribution of Dendrobaena octaedra
(Lumbricidae) in aspen and pine forests in the
Canadian Rocky Mountains (Alberta). Soil Biology and Biochemistry
29:265-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00052-1
Edward, C.A. & J.R. Lofty (1972). Biology of
Earthworms, Chapman and Hall, London.
Edwards, C.A. (2004). Earthworm Ecology (2nd edition). CRC
Press, Boca Raton.
Eijsackers, H.
(2011). Earthworms as colonizers of natural and cultivated soil environments. Applied
Soil Ecology 50: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2011.07.008
Eisen, G. (1874). New Englands och Canadas Lumbricider. Ofversigt af Kongl Vetensk Akademiens
Forhandl 30: 41–49.
Evans, A.C. (1946). A new species of earthworm of the genus Allolobophora. Annals and Magazine of Natural
History 11(14): 98–101.
Fragoso, C., P. Lavelle, E. Blanchart, B.
Senapati, J. Jimenez, M. de los A. Martinez, Decaens T & J. Tondoh (1999). Earthworm
communities of tropical agroecosystems: origin, structure and influences of
management practices, pp. 27–55. In: Lavelle, P., L. Brussaard
& P. Hendrix (eds.). Earthworm Management in Tropical Agroecosystems.
CABI Publishing, New York.
Frelich, L.E.,
C.M. Hale, S. Scheu, A.R. Holdsworth, L. Heneghan, P.J. Bohlen & P.B. Reich (2006).
Earthworm invasion into previously earthworms-free temperate and boreal
forests. Biological Invasions 8: 1235–1245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-006-9019-3
Gates, G.E. (1940). Indian earthworms. VIII-XI. Records of
Indian Museum 42: 115–143.
Gates, G.E. (1945a). On some Indian Earthworms. II. Journal of
Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal 11: 54–91.
Gates, G.E. (1945b). On some Indian earthworms. Proceedings of
Indian Academy of Sciences. 21(B): 208–258.
Gates, G.E. (1972a). Burmese earthworms. An introduction to the
systematics and biology of megadrilae oligochaetes
with special reference to Southeast Asia. Transactions of American
Philosophical Society 62(7): 1–326.
Gates, G.E. (1972b). Contributions to North American earthworms
(Annelida: Oligochaeta). No. 3: towards a revision of
the earthworm family Lumbricidae IV. The trapezoides species group. Bulletin of Tall
Timbers Research Station 12: 1–146.
Gee, G.W. & W. Bauder (1986). Principle
of the pipette method, pp. 394–396. In: Klute, A.
(ed.) Agronomy: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part I: Physical and Mineralogical
Methods. American Society of Agronomy: Madison.
Gonzalez, G., C.Y. Huang, X. Zou & C. Rodrıguez
(2006). Earthworm invasions in the tropics. Biological Invasions 8: 1247–1256.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-006-9023-7
Goswami, R. &
C.K. Mondal (2015). A study on earthworm population and diversity
with special reference to physiochemical parameters in different habitats of
south 24 Parganas district in West Bengal. Records of zoological Survey of
India 115(1): 31–38.
Gupta, P.K. (1999). Soil, Plant, Water and
Fertilizer Analysis. Agro Botanica,
Bikaner, India.
Hale, C.M., L.E. Frelich & P.B. Reich
(2005). Exotic European earthworm invasion dynamics in northern hardwood
forests of Minnesota, USA. Ecological Application 15: 848–860.
Hale, C.M. & G.E. Host (2005). Assessing
the impacts of European earthworm invasions in beech-maple hardwood and
aspen-fir boreal forests of the western Great Lakes region. National Park Service
Great Lakes Inventory and Monitoring Network Report GLKN/2011/11. Duluth, US.
Hendrix, P.F. (2006). Biological invasions belowground - earthworms
as invasive species. Biological Invasions 8: 1201–1204.
Hendrix, P.F., M.A. Callaham, J.M. Drake, C.Y.
Huang, S.W. James, B.A. Snyder & W. Zhang (2008). Pandora’s
box contained bait: the global problem of introduced earthworms. Annual
Reviews of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 39: 593–613. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.39.110707.173426
Holdsworth, A.R.,
L.E. Frelich & P.B. Reich (2007). Regional
extent of an ecosystem engineer: earthworm invasion in northern hardwood
forests. Ecological Application 17: 1666–1677. https://doi.org/10.1890/05-2003.1
Ismail, S.A., C. Ramakrishanan & M.M. Anzar (1990). Density and diversity in
relation to the distribution of earthworms in Madras. Proceedings of Indian
Academy of Sciences (Animal Sciences) 99: 73–78.
Jackson, M.L. (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 183–191pp.
James, S.W. & P.F. Hendrix (2004). Invasion
of exotic earthworms into North America and other regions, pp. 75–88. In:
Edwards, C.A. (ed.), Earthworm Ecology. 2nd ed. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, US.
Joshi, N. & S. Aga (2009). Diversity
and distribution of earthworms in a subtropical forest ecosystem in
Uttarakhand, India. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University
9(1): 21–25.
Julka, J.M.
(1976). Studies on the earthworm fauna of Orissa (India). I. Moniligastridae and Ocnerodrilidae.
Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin
52: 321–329. https://doi.org/10.1002/mmnz.19760520206
Julka, J.M.
(1978). Studies on the earthworm fauna of Orissa (India). II. Megascolecidae, Octochaetidae
and Microchaetidae. Mitteilungen
aus dem Zoologischen
Museum in Berlin 54: 185–197.
Julka, J.M.
(1981). Taxonomic studies on earthworms collected during the susbansiri expedition in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Records
of Zoological Survey of India. Occasional Paper No. 26: 1–37.
Julka, J.M.
(1988). The Fauna of India and the Adjacent Countries. Megadrile: Oligochaeta (Earthworms). Haplotaxida:
Lumbricina: Megascolecoidea:
Octochaetidae. Zoological Survey of India Calcutta,
xiv+400pp.
Julka, J.M.
(1993). Earthworm resources of India and their utilization in Vermiculture, pp.
51–56. In: Earthworm resources and Vermiculture. Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, 128pp.
Julka J.M.
(2014). Diversity and distribution of exotic earthworms (Annelida, Oligochaeta) in India a review, pp, 73–83. In. Chaudhuri,
P. & S.M. Singh (ed.). Biology and Ecology of Tropical Earthworms.
Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 327pp.
Julka, J.M., R. Paliwal & P. Kathireswari
(2009). Biodiversity of Indian earthworms-an overview, pp. 36–56. In: Edwards,
C.A., R. Jayaraaj & I.A. Jayraaj
(eds.). Proceedings of Indo-US Workshop on Vermitechnology
in Human Welfare. Rohini Achagam, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India.
Julka, J.M.
& B.K. Senapati (1987). Earthworms (Oligochaeta:
Annelida) of Orissa. India. Records of the Zoological Survey of India.
Miscellaneous Publication. Occasional Paper No. 92: 1–48.
Kale, R.D. & R.V. Krishnamoorty (1978a).
Distribution of earthworms in relation to soil conditions in Bangalore, pp.
63–69. In: Edwards, C.A. & G.K. Veeresh (eds.). Soil
Biology and Ecology in India. UAS Tech. Ser. 22, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bangalore.
Kale, R.D. & R.V. Krishnamoorty (1978b). Distribution
and abundance of earthworms in Bangalore. Proceedings of Indian Academy of
Sciences 88(B): 23–25.
Karmegam, N. &
T. Daniel (2007). Effect of physico-chemical
parameters on earthworm abundance: A Quantitative approach. Journal of
Applied Sciences Research 3: 1369–1376.
Kathireswari, P.
(2016). DNA barcoding of earthworms. In: Science communicators meet
(103rd ISCA, Mysore).
Lavelle, P. (1997). Faunal activities and soil processes: adaptive
strategies that determine ecosystem function. Advances in Ecological
Research 27: 93–132.
Lee, K.E. (1985). Earthworms-their Ecology and Relationships
with Soils and Land Use. Academic Press, Sydney.
Lone, A.R., N. Tiwari, S.S. Thakur, O. Pearlson,
T. Pavlícek & S. Yadav (2020).
Exploration of four new Kanchuria sp.
of earthworms (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae)
from the North Eastern Region of India using DNA barcoding approach. Journal
of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 13: 268e281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2020.02.004
MacIsaac, H.J., A.
Igor, I.A. Grigorovich & A. Ricciardi (2001).
Reassessment of species invasions concepts: The great lakes basin as a model. Biological
Invasions 3: 405–416. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015854606465
Marinissen, J.C. Y
& F. van den Bosch (1992). Colonization of new habitats by
earthworms. Oecologia 91: 371–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00317626
Michaelsen, W.
(1900). Das Tierreich 10: Vermes, Oligochaeta.
Friedman and Sohn, Germany, 715pp.
Michaelsen, W.
(1903). Die geographische verbreitung
der oligochaeten. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin,
186pp. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.11667
Michaelsen, W.
(1907). New earthworms from front-India, Ceylon, Burma and the Andaman Islands.
Yearbook of the Hamburg Institute of Scientific Institutions, Hamburg 24(2):
143–188.
Miller, R.B., J.D. Stout & K.E. Lee (1955). Biological
and chemical changes following scrub burning on a New Zealand hill soil. New
Zealand Journal of Science and Technology 37: 290–313.
Mir, T.A. & I.A. Najar (2016). Earthworms
of Doodhpathri (Budgam),
Jammu and Kashmir, India. International Research Journal of Environmental
Sciences 5(12): 33–39.
Nair, A.C. & S.A. Bennour (1997). Thermal
reactions of the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny, 1826 (Oligochaete: Lumbricidae). Proceedings of Indian National Science
Academy B63 (1&2): 53–62.
Nairw, G.A.
& S.A. Bennour (1998). Cocoons
and hatchlings of Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny 1826) (Oligochaeta:
Lumbricidae) in Benghazi, Libya. Journal of Arid
Environments 40: 459–466.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2010). Vermicomposting of Azolla pinnata by using earthworm
Eisenia fetida.
The Bioscan 5(2): 239–241.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2011a). Earthworm communities of Kashmir Valley, J&K, India. Tropical Ecology 52(2): 151–162.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2011b). New record of an earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826) from Srinagar, Kashmir (J&K),
India. Ecology Environment and
Conservation 17(3): 1–3.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2011c). New record of the earthworm Eisenia
fetida (Savigny, 1826) from Kashmir Valley, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
The Bioscan 6(1): 143–145.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2012). Vermicomposting of fresh water weeds
(macrophytes by Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826), Aporrectodea
caliginosa trapezoides
(Duges, 1828) and Aporrectodea rosea rosea (Savigny, 1826). Dynamic
Soil Dynamic Plant 6(S1): 73–77.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2013a). Management of fresh water weeds (macrophytes)
by vermicomposting using Eisenia fetida. Environmental Science and
Pollution Research 20: 6406–6417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1687-9
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2013b). Effect of vermicompost on growth and productivity
of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
under field conditions. Acta Biol Malaysiana 2(1): 12–21.
Najar, I.A. &
A.B. Khan (2014). Factors Affecting
Distribution of Earthworms
in Kashmir Valley: A Multivariate Statistical
Approach. Proceedings of
Zoological Society 67(2): 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12595-013-0081-4
Narayanan S.P., S. Sathrumithra, G. Christopher
& J.M. Julka (2017). New species and new records
of earthworms of the genus
Drawida from Kerala part of the
Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot, India (Oligochaeta, Moniligastridae). Zoo
Keys 691: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.691.13174
Narayanani, S.P., S. Sathrumithra, R. Anuja, A.P.
Christopher & J.M. Julka (2019). First record
of the exotic
earthworm Metaphire
bahli (Gates, 1945) (Oligochaeta:
Megascolecidae) from India. Opuscula Zoologica Budapest 50(1): 99–103.
Omodeo, P. (1952). Cariologia dei Lumbricidae. Caryologia
4: 173–178.
Paliwal, R. &
J.M. Julka (2005). Checklist of earthworms
of Western Himalayas, India.
Zoos Print Journal 20(9): 1972–1976. https://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.ZPJ.1195.1972-6
Paoletti, M.G. (1999).
The role of earthworms
for assessment of sustainability and as bioindicators.
Agriculture Ecosystems
and Environment 74: 133–155.
Pérez-Losada, M., R. Maigualida,
M.C. Jonathon & J. Domínguez (2009). Phylogenetic assessment of the earthworm
Aporrectodea caliginosa
species complex (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
52: 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2009.04.003
Plisko, J.D. (2001). Notes on the occurrence of the introduced
earthworm Pontoscolex
corethrurus (Muller, 1857) in South Africa (Oligochaeta: Glossoscoloidae). African Invertebrates
42: 323–334.
Proulx, N. (2003). Ecological Risk
Assessment of Non-Indigenous
Earthworm Species. Prepared for U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, International Affairs, Division of Scientific Authority by
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources: St. Paul,
Minnesota, 18pp.
Rajwar, N., S.S Bisht, V. Singh & J.W. Reynold (2018). Earthworm (Oligochaeta) diversity of Kumaum
Himalayas, India with first record of
woodland blue worm, Octolasion Cyaneum (Savigny, 1826), (Lumbricidae). Megadrilogica
23(12): 161–171.
Reynolds, J.W. (1994). The distribution of the earthworms
(Oligochaeta) of Indiana: a
case for the Post Quaternary Introduction Theory of megadrile migration
in North America. Megadrilogica
5(3): 13–32.
Sathianarayanan, A. &
A.B. Khan (2006). Diversity, distribution
and abundance of earthworms in Pondicherry region. Tropical Ecology 47: 139–144.
Savigny, J.C. (1826). Anylyse dun Memoir
sur les Lombrics par
Cuvier. Memoirs of
Connecticut Academy of Science institute
France 5: 176–184.
Schwert, D.P. (1980). Active and passive dispersal of lumbricid earthworms,
pp. 182–189. In: Dindal, D.E. (ed.).
Soil Biology as Related to
Land Use Practices. Proceeding
of VIIth Soil Zool. Colloq. EPA,
Washington, D.C., USA, 891pp.
Sharma, B.D. & T.K. Kaul (1974). Note on the distribution of four genera
of earthworms in J & K
State. Indian Journal of Animal
Research 8: 46.
Shekhovtsov, S.V., E.V. Golovanova & S.E. Peltek
(2015). Different dispersal histories
of lineages of the earthworm
Aporrectodea caliginosa
(Lumbricidae, Annelida) in the Palearctic. Biological Invasions 18: 751–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-015-1045-6
Shigesada, N., K.
Kawasaki & Y. Takeda (1995). Modeling stratified diffusions in biological invasions. American
Naturalist 146: 229–251.
Siddaraju, M., K.S. Sreepada & M.P. Krishna (2013). Recorded Distribution of Earthworms of the
Family Octochaetidae in Dakshina
Kannada District, South West Coast, Karnataka. International
Journal of Scientific and
Research Publications 3(6): 1–8.
Sinha, R.K. (2009). Earthworms: the miracle of nature
(Charles Darwin’s‘unheralded soldiers
of mankind and farmer’s friends’).
Environmentalist 29: 339–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-009-9242-4
Srivastava, R., M.
Kumar, A.K. Choudhary & M.P. Sinha
(2003). Earthworm diversity of Jharkhand State. Nature
Environment and Pollution Technology 2(3):
357–362.
Stephensen, J. (1922). Some earthworms from Kashmir, Bombay and other parts of
India. Records of the Indian Museum 24: 427–443.
Stephenson, J. (1923). Oligochaeta. The
Fauna of British India. Including Ceylon and Burma.
Taylor and Francis, London, 518pp.
Stephenson, J. (1924). On some Indian Oligochaeta, with a description of two new genera
of Ocnerodrilidae. Records
of Indian Museum 26: 317–365.
Stephenson, J. (1925). On some Oligochaeta mainly from Assam, South India and the Andaman
Islands. Records of Indian Museum 27: 43–73.
Stephenson, J. (1926). Description of Indian Oligochaeta. Records of Indian
Museum 28: 249–268.
Stephenson, J. (1931). Description of Indian Oligochaeta. II. Records of
Indian Museum 33: 173–202.
Striganova, B.R. &
N.M. Porjadina (2005). Soil animal population
in boreal forests of West-Siberian plain. KMK Scientific
Press Ltd, Moscow.
Templeton, R. (1844). Description of Megascolex Caeruleus.
Proceedings of
Zoological Society of London 12: 89–91.
Timmerman, A., D. Bos,
J. Ouwehand & R.G.M. de Goede
(2006). Long-term effects of fertilization regime on earthworm abundance in a semi-natural grassland area. Pedobiologia 50:
427–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedobi.2006.08.005
Tiunov, A.V., C.M.
Hale., H.M. Holdsworth & T.S. Vsevolodova-Perel
(2006). Invasion patterns of Lumbricidae into the previously earthworm-free areas of northeastern Europe and the western Great Lakes region of
North America. Biological Invasions
8: 1223–1234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-006-9018-4
Tripathi, G & P. Bhardwaj (2004). Earthworm
diversity and habitat preferences in arid regions of Rajasthan.
Zoos’ Print Journal 19(7): 1515–1519. https://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.ZPJ.1074.1515-9
Verma, D. & Shweta (2011).
Earthworm resources of Western Himalayan region, India. International
Journal of Soil Science 6(2):
124–133. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijss.2011.124.133
Walkley, A. &
I.A. Black (1934). An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining
soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid
titration method. Soil Science 34: 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-193401000-00003
Wardle, D.A. &
D.A. Peltzer (2017). Impacts of invasive biota in forest ecosystems in an aboveground-belowground
context. Biological Invasions
19: 3301–3316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1372-x
Winsome, T., L.
Epstein, P.F. Hendrix & W.R. Horwath (2006). Competitive interactions between native and exotic earthworm species influenced by habitat quality
in a California grassland. Applied Soil Ecology 32: 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2005.01.008
Zorn, M.I., C.A.M. van Gestel, E. Morrien, M. Wagenaar & H. Eijsackers (2008). Flooding responses of three earthworm
species Allolobophora
chlorotica, Aporrectodea
caliginosa and Lumbricus rubellus,
in a laboratory-controlled environment.
Soil Biology and Biochemistry 40: 587–593.
Zorn, M.I.,
C.A.M.V. Gestel & H. Eijsackers
(2005). Species-specific earthworm population responses in relation to flooding
dynamics in a Dutch floodplain soil. Pedobiology 49: 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedobi.2004.08.004