Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 September 2016 | 8(11): 9289–9305

 

 

Distribution records and extended range of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger (Aves: Caprimulgiformes: Podargidae) in the Western Ghats: a review from 1862 to 2015

 

Anil Mahabal 1, Sanjay Thakur 2 & Rajgopal Patil 3

1,3 Institute of Natural History, Education & Research (INHER), B1-602, Kumar Parisar, Kothrud, Pune, Maharashtra 411038, India

1 Residential address: 1935, Sadashiv Peth, Madiwale Colony, Pune, Maharashtra 411030, India

2 Biome Conservation Foundation, 18 Silver Moon, 1/2A/2, Bavdhan (Kh), Pune, Maharashtra 411021, India

3 Residential address: B-55, Woodland Apartment, Gandhi Bhavan Road, Pune, Maharashtra 411038, India

1 mahabal.anil@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 sanjaythakur005@gmail.com, 3 rajnpatil@gmail.com

 

 

 

 

doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.2775.8.11.9289-9305 | ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:235DB4AD-9499-4233-BB86-3153BAC05683

Editor: P.O. Nameer, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India. Date of publication: 26 September 2016 (online & print)

 

Manuscript details: Ms # 2775 | Received 06 May 2016 | Final received 06 July 2016 | Finally accepted 30 August 2016

 

Citation: Mahabal, A., S. Thakur & R. Patil (2016). Distribution records and extended range of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger (Aves: Caprimulgiformes: Podargidae) in the Western Ghats, India: a review from 1862 to 2015. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(11): 9289–9305; http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.2775.8.11.9289-9305

 

Copyright: © Mahabal et al. 2016. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.

 

Funding: No funding was sought for this review.

 

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no competing interests.

 

Author Contribution: AM conceptualised the review. AM, ST and RP collected the literature data, compiled and wrote the paper. RP contributed image and created the figures and the online map.

 

Author Details: Dr. Anil Mahabal has completed his doctoral research on population ecology of Common Myna. He served for 37 years in Zoological Survey of India, retiring as the Additional Director/Scientist ‘F’. He has also authored many scientific papers related to the population, roosting behaviour, status reports, reviews, checklists and colour aberrations particularly in Aves and other animals. He is also president of Institute of Natural History Education and Research (INHER), Pune. Sanjay Thakur is a naturalist and an avid natural history enthusiast. He has authored many research papers on Aves and reptiles. He has been working for the conservation of our natural heritage. Rajgopal Patil is an IT professional and a natural history enthusiast. He has been observing birds for the last 28 years. He is keenly interested in bioacoustics of birds and has been recording and analysing calls of birds and other animals. He has published papers and articles on this topic.

Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the online repositories of eBird (http://ebird.org), Oriental Bird Images (http://orientalbirdimages.org) and GBIF.org (http://gbif.org).The authors are also thankful to Dr. Sujit Narwade, BNHS, Mumbai; Drs. Anand Padhye and Nilesh Dahanukar from Pune; Drs. Shrikant Jadhav, Jafer Palot and S. S. Talmale, ZSI, Pune, Kozikode and Jabalpur respectively; Amit Sayyed, Satara; Aasheesh Pittie, Hyderabad; David Raju, Kerala, Santharam, V. and Sashi Kumar, C. from Chennai for sharing some relevant literature. We acknowledge the support from the Bibliography of South Asian Ornithology, compiled by Aasheesh Pittie. Web URL: http://www.southasiaornith.in. We are grateful to Aparna Watve, TISS, Tuljapur and Vishakha Patil, Pune for logistics help.

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract: The Sri Lanka Frogmouth (or Ceylon Frogmouth) Batrachostomus moniliger is an endemic resident bird confined to the evergreen and secondary forests of Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India. The earlier distribution range of the Frogmouth was from the Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka to the southern tip of India and most of Sri Lanka. Recently, the range has been extended further north to Goa and up to Mumbai in Maharashtra. A number of observations summarized into 202 distributional records (published reports and records uploaded to eBird basic data set, Oriental Bird Images, and GBIF.org from the years 1862 to 2015) of the Frogmouth have been tabulated with its maps, and reviewed for their state-wise distribution records. The need of undertaking surveys to fill up the gaps in their distribution range as well as any further northward extension till the culmination of the Western Ghats has been discussed. It is urged that taxonomical and molecular phylogenetic studies are required to be carried out in different populations of Frogmouths across the entire range.

Keywords: Batrachostomus moniliger, Sri Lanka Frogmouth, distribution range, eBird, endemic, evergreen forests, GBIF, Oriental Bird Images, Western Ghats.

 

 

Introduction

The frogmouths are a group of stocky nocturnal birds distributed across Oriental and Australasian Regions (Ali 1949; Gruson 1976). The 14 known species of frogmouths belong to the family Podargidae constituting three genera - Rigidipenna, Podargus and Batrachostomus (Holyoak 2016). One of these, the Sri Lanka Frogmouth (or Ceylon Frogmouth) Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth, 1849 (Images 1 & 2) is of Indochinese affinity (Ripley 1959). It is a medium-sized sexually dichromatic bird with a large-head, hooked bill and large forward-facing yellow eyes. It is arboreal, nocturnal, shy and seldom seen during the day time. Also apparently not very vocal during the day, hence possibly less rare than it appears. It is a resident and locally common bird confined to dense evergreen, humid primary and secondary forest (adjacent degraded forest), and thick bamboo; but usually avoids plantations and disturbed forests. The bird is insectivorous in habit, its diet consisting of beetles, grasshoppers and moths; the breeding season is mainly from January to April but continues till October. The nest is placed in the fork of a small tree or horizontal branches 2m and above from the ground. Only one egg is laid which is white and elliptical. Both sexes share incubating duties (Ali & Whistler 1936; Ali 1969, 1999; Marshall 1978; Ali & Ripley 1983; Cleere & Nurney 1998; Baskaran 1999; Holyoak 1999, 2001; Cleere 2010; Sashikumar et al. 2011; Rasmussen & Anderton 2012; Grimmett et al. 2013; Holyoak & Kirwan 2016). It is a bird endemic to the South Asian mainland and Sri Lanka (Jathar & Rahmani 2006) and has been categorized as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List (BirdLife International 2015). It is listed in Schedule I, Part III (Birds) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (as amended up to 2006).

 

Distribution range

Blyth described Batrachostomus moniliger based on Layard’s material from Ceylon (= Sri Lanka) (Jerdon 1862; Hume 1874, 1876; Baker 1922, 1925, 1927, 1934; Baker & Inglis 1930; Ali 1969, 1999; Ali & Ripley 1983). Baker (1927, 1934) provided the distribution of frogmouths from Wayanad south through Travancore to the whole of Ceylon (= Sri Lanka). Further, he mentioned that Bell collected eggs/nest in Karwar, Kanara District (= Uttara Kannada in Karnataka State). Abdulali (1949), Ripley (1961), Ali (1949, 1969, 1999), Ali & Ripley (1983), and Daniels (1997) have stated that the range of these frogmouths is from the southern heavy-rainfall tracts of Western Ghats, India from ca. 150N latitude in Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka south to Thiruvananthapuram District in Kerala, up to ca. 1,200m (and southern tip of the country in Tamil Nadu by Sugathan 1981); and in Sri Lanka, throughout the forest areas up to ca. 1,800m. Henry (1971) has pointed out that the birds are rare but widely distributed in Sri Lanka. Lainer (2004) documented the first observation of the frogmouth in Goa at Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary in 1996. Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) also mentioned that the Sri Lanka Frogmouth occurs in the Western Ghats from south of Goa and in Sri Lanka. Giri (2002) recorded the Sri Lanka Frogmouths further north of northern Karnataka in Kolhapur District, Maharashtra and Kasambe (2012) sighted them in Mumbai, Maharashtra; indicating that at present their northern most distribution range has extended up to Mumbai.

 

 

 

 

Materials and Methods

The number of observations summarized into 202 distribution records of Sri Lanka Frogmouth, from 1862 to 2015, from all the states in its distribution range falling under the Western Ghats, India have been reviewed in this paper. Out of these records 122 are from the published literature, while the remaining sightings of the frogmouths are from the documented observations by various bird watchers, nature watch groups uploaded to eBird Basic Dataset (2015) and GBIF.org (2016), as well as from the photographs uploaded on the Oriental Bird Images (2015) between 2001 and 2015.

Since 2001 technological advancements such as eBird and other internet platforms have transformed the way bird watchers have recorded their observations. Hence, we have considered the previous distribution records of frogmouths from the year 1862 to 2000 and recent records from the year 2001 to 2015. While reviewing the records, we considered the locality along with geographical co-ordinates, date of sightings and general observations on the frogmouths to prepare the table. We acknowledge in some cases the geographical coordinates associated with the observational record have the limitation of not being the exact location of the observation.

Results

Distribution records

The details of previous (1862–2000) and recent (2001–2015) distribution records of Sri Lanka Frogmouths in the Western Ghats ranging particularly in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra have been given in Table 1 and depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. State-wise discussion are given below:

Kerala

The first nest and remains of eggs of Sri Lanka Frogmouth were found in Travancore by T.F. Bourdillon and the number of nests by J. Stewart during or before 1876 (Hume 1876, 1890; Fergusson & Bourdillon 1904; Baker 1914–15; Baker 1927, 1934; Baker & Inglis 1930; Ali 1969, 1999). T.F. Bourdillon & J. Stewart also collected many specimens from Travancore (Ali & Whistler 1936). After a gap of about 50 to 60 years, in 1935, Ali (1935) recorded the Frogmouth in the Malabar zone (Travancore and Cochin - now Kerala) then again, after a gap of 40 to 50 years, the Frogmouth was recorded in various districts of Kerala state lying in the Western Ghats range either in singles or in pairs, particularly in Wayanad, Palakkad, Thrissur, Idukki and Pathanamthitta by various workers (Vijayan 1979; Sugathan 1981; Zacharias & Gaston 1993; Santharam 1995, 2006) (Table 1).

Recent sightings of the Frogmouth have been recorded by various researchers (Eldhose 2001a & b; Sashikumar & Palot 2005; Praveen & Nameer 2007, 2008; Sashikumar et al. 2010, 2011, 2014; Praveen 2015) and nature watch groups between 2003 and 2015. The observations by these nature watch groups were sourced from the eBird Basic Dataset (2015) and GBIF.org (2016) with photographs uploaded on Oriental Bird Images (2015). Further, Table 1 indicates that most of these sightings were from the bordering areas of Idukki and Ernakulam districts and a few sightings in other districts of the state, such as Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Thrissur, Palakkad, Malappuram, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Kannur, and Kasaragod except for the district of Alappuzha.

Tamil Nadu

There are seven previous sightings of the Frogmouth from Anaimalai Hills of Coimbatore District between 1991 and 1993 (Kannan 1993, 1994 a,b, 1998) and further, according to him these constitute the first record of the species from Tamil Nadu. However, there are a few records of some specimens collected from the districts of Madurai in 1986 and Tirunelveli in 1992 (Dutta 2009).

The recent sightings of the Frogmouth are being recorded mostly from Kanniyakumari, Tirunelveli, Virudhunagar, Tiruppur, Coimbatore and Nilgiris districts from 2004 to 2015 (Johnsingh 2001; Swami 2006; Shravankumar et al. 2012; eBird Basic Dataset 2015; Oriental Bird Images 2015 and GBIF.org 2016) (Table 1).

It was noticed that the previous and recent sightings of these birds from Coimbatore District are mostly from Anaimalai Hill ranges. Santharam (2005) suggested that the Frogmouth is a locally threatened bird of the state and are in need of conservation efforts on priority.

Karnataka

The most previous records of Sri Lanka frogmouths were from various places in Uttara Kannada District (Davidson 1895, 1898). Thereafter, eggs, nest and nestlings were collected by T.R. Bell during or before 1927 from Karwar (now Uttara Kannada) (Baker 1927, 1934). Koelz (1942) surveyed birds in Londa neighbourhood and from Uttara Kannada during 1938 and Ali (1942–1943) in Mysore (now Karnataka) state including Bababudan Hills and forests adjoining Coorg (now Kodagu), but they did not record any Frogmouth from these areas. After a gap of about 40 to 45 years, the birds have been again sighted from 1983 to ‘85 in Uttar Kannada District by Daniels (1984, 1986) and Borges (1986). There are some records of specimens collected from Kodagu District and Jog Falls, Shimoga District in 1977 (Dutta 2009).

Recently, Kumara & Singh (2006) and others have sighted a number of Frogmouths in different areas of the Western Ghats between 2001 and 2003. Barve (2010) and Barve & Warrier (2013) have sighted these birds commonly in Sharavathy Valley of Udupi District. Beside this, the birds were sighted by a number of observers in Kodagu, Chikmagalur, Udupi, Shimoga and Uttara Kannada districts from 2005 to 2015 (eBird Basic Dataset 2015; Oriental Bird Images 2015) (Table 1).

Goa

There were a number of studies carried out on the birds of Goa (Grubh & Ali 1976; Abdulali 1980; Rane 1983; Saha & Dasgupta 1992; Lainer 1999) but none of these studies have recorded the Sri Lanka Frogmouth in Goa. Lainer (2004) indicated that Holt reported the Frogmouth for the first time in 1996 at Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary and then by a number of birdwatchers between 1996 and 2000 by voice record. Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) indicated that the Frogmouth occurs in the Western Ghats southwards from Goa.

From 2001 until 2015 there are a number of recent observations and photographic evidences of Sri Lanka Frogmouths from various wildlife sanctuaries and national parks from South Goa and North Goa districts (Lainer & Alvares 2013; eBird Basic Dataset 2015; Oriental Bird Images 2015; GBIF.org 2016) (Table 1).

Maharashtra

There were a few surveys carried out on birds in Khandala, Mahabaleshwar along the Sahyadri Mountains (Western Ghats), and South Konkan by Fairbank (1876) and Vidal (1880) respectively, but they did not sight the Frogmouth in these regions. Neither was the bird mentioned in the Handbook to the birds of Bombay Presidency (Barnes 1885), nor in the Checklist of Birds of Maharashtra (Abdulali 1981). Giri (2002) recorded Sri Lanka Frogmouth for the first time in the state of Maharashtra from Kolhapur District in November 1998.

Thereafter, Kasambe (2012) sighted the Frogmouth in Mumbai during March 2011. Recent sightings of these birds are recorded in Raigad District (Prashanth 2009; Oriental Bird Images 2015) and in Sindhudurg District (eBird Basic Dataset 2015). From 2014 to 2015, Sayyed & Mahabal (2016) recorded the Frogmouth in the area between Kolhapur and Mumbai, particularly in the districts of Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri, Sangli, Satara and Raigad falling under the Western Ghats, and filled up a big gap in its distribution range.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conclusion

The earlier northernmost distribution range of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth was up to Uttar Kannada, Karnataka starting with the records from around 1898 (Davidson 1898). The recent records such as the one by Holt in Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, North Goa District, in 1996 (Lainer 2004) extended the range further northwards to Goa. The continued northward movement of the bird into the state of Maharashtra was recorded in Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kolhapur District in 1998 (Giri 2002), Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, Raigad District in 2009 (Prashanth 2009; Kasambe 2012) and Sanjay Gandhi National Park near Mumbai in 2011 (Kasambe 2012). Further, Kasambe (2012) speculated whether it extends till the Dang District in Gujarat where the Western Ghats culminates. There is one record of Hodgson’s Frogmouth (Batrachostomus hodgsoni) (Pilo et al. 1996) from Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat but not that of Sri Lanka Frogmouth. This record however seems doubtful and requires further corroboration.

Until 2000 the observation records of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth were patchy and there were huge gaps in their distribution range along the Western Ghats. Now many gaps have been filled up because of the recent records and hence, it shows a more or less continuous distribution in the various states (particularly in Kerala and Goa) (Fig. 2). Some gaps still remain (can be viewed at https://goo.gl/5KU9lw) which need to be surveyed properly for presence of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth, if any, in the states given below. Some of these gaps exist possibly because of unsuitable forest habitats, agricultural lands, tea estates, urbanization etc. resulting in less possibility of their occurrence.

State-wise distribution gaps:

Kerala

1. Between north of Thenmala, Kollam District to Thrivani, Pathanamthitta District an aerial gap of about 40km particularly around Rani Forest Division, Thannithodu, and Aruvappulam.
2. Between Eravikulam National Park and Wallardie, Idukki District an aerial gap of about 55km particularly around Devikulum, Kannathadu, Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary, Cardomom Hills and Ayyappacoil.
3. Palakkad - a natural gap in the Western Ghats.

Tamil Nadu

1. Western parts of Theni and Dindigul districts, although falling in the Western Ghats particularly the Palni Hills including Kallar Reserve Forest, Kodaikanal, Poombarai and Kookal.

Karnataka

1. Between Sampaje and Virajpet, Kodagu District an aerial gap of about 40km, particularly around the Greater Talacauvery National Park, Madikeri, Bettaphur, Nelaji, Naladi.
2. Between Karkala, Udupi District and Pushpagiri-Bisale area in Western Ghats an aerial gap of about 80km particularly around Mullodi, Kottigehara, Dharmasthala, Byrapura Estate.
3. Between Sharavathy Wildlife Sanctuary and Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary, Udupi District an aerial gap of about 60km particularly around Hosanagar, Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, Hulikal and around Mani Reservoir.
4. Between Karwar and Kumta, Uttar Kannada District an aerial gap of about 50km particularly around Gule, Adlur, Achave, Yana, Ramanguli, Kemmani.
5. Some parts of the districts such as Mysore, Hassan, Dakshina Kannada, Dharwad and Belgaum falling in the Western Ghats range.

Goa

1. More or less continuous distribution in the state with no major gaps.

Maharashtra

1. Between Amboli and Virdi, Sindhudurg District an aerial gap of about 35km particularly around Udeli, Pargad, Dodamarg, Sada and around Tilari Dam.
2. Between Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kolhapur District and Amboli, Sindhudurg District an aerial gap of about 50km particularly around Dudhganga Reservoir, Natal, Pangrad, Gotvewadi and around Patgaon Reservoir.
3. Between Devrukh, Ratnagiri District and Radhanagari, Kolhapur District an aerial gap of about 80km particularly around Sakharpa, Vishalgad, Barki and Gaganbawda.
4. Between Kaas, Satara District and Chandoli, Sangli District an aerial gap of about 60km particularly around Koyna Reservoir, Nawaja, Chandel and around Dikshi Reservoir.
5. Between Bhira, Raigad District and Mahabaleshwar, Satara District an aerial gap of about 65km particularly around Ghol, Raigad Fort Natural Reserve, Bhirwadi, Adawale etc.
6. Between Chavani and Bhira, Raigad District, a gap of 30km particularly around Amnori, Bhalgul, Thanale, Ghera Sudhagad.
7. Around Lonavala- Khandala belt, Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Ambavane, Saltar, Telbaila, Nagshet (Pune District) and Karnala Bird Sanctuary, Matheran (Raigad District).

The surveys are needed to verify the presence of Sri Lanka Frogmouth in the above mentioned state-wise distribution gaps. Besides, the following regions on the eastern side of the Western Ghats should be surveyed as well:

1. In Tamil Nadu the bird has been observed in the Sirumalai mountains, but there are no records in the intermediate zone between these mountains and the Western Ghats.
2. The mountainous region consisting of Nilgiri mountains, forests of Satyamangalam, Biligiriranga (BR) Hills and Melagiri hills falling in the Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states.
3. The three large national parks of Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu), Bandipur and Nagarhole (both in Karnataka) have no records of the bird.
4. Parts of Thane and Nasik districts of Maharashtra and Dang District, Gujarat falling in the Western Ghats, to check any further northward occurrence of the frogmouth beyond Mumbai.

Karanth (2003) discussed the evolution of disjunct distributions among some wet-zone species including genus Batrachostomus (also referred by Ripley 1949) of the Indian subcontinent by testing various hypotheses using a phylogenetic approach. He pointed out that distribution data should be well-documented throughout India for studying such species. This communication is the first step in this context.

Datta (2009) on the basis of collection proposed that the population, particularly in the southern Western Ghats strip between Jog falls, Shimoga District and Kodagu District, Karnataka as being Batrachostomus moniliger roonwali, a new subspecies, whereas distribution of B. m. moniliger, a nominate subspecies, would be from Madurai District to Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu, except the zone from Kodagu south to Madurai being the intergrading zone of two populations. This proposition hasn’t found a wide acceptance. Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) have pointed out that although taxonomically considered the same race, the Sri Lankan and Western Ghats birds differ slightly in bill size, tail length, plumage tone and possibly vocalisations, but need further studies.

Hence, keeping in view, the above work and the present extended range of Sri Lanka Frogmouth, further northwards up to Mumbai (Maharashtra), it needs a detailed taxonomic as well as molecular phylogenetic studies of different populations present in the entire region of the Western Ghats of India.

For the birdwatchers/researchers, we suggest that, in addition to sightings, they should try to hear the calls (http://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Batrachostomus-moniliger) typically given in the early mornings/evenings/nights to identify the presence of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth in the area.

 

 

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