On the status of Snow Leopard Pantherauncia (Schreber, 1775) in Annapurna, Nepal
Som B.
Ale 1, Bikram Shrestha2 & Rodney Jackson 3
1 Biological Sciences,
University of Illinois-Chicago, 845 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
2 Snow Leopard Conservancy-Nepal program,
NTNC/ACAP HQ, Hariyo Kharka,Pokhara, Nepal
1,3 Snow Leopard Conservancy, 18030 Comstock
Avenue, Sonoma, CA 95476, USA
1 sale1@uic.edu (corresponding author), 2 bikramone@gmail.com, 3rodjackson@mountain.org
Abstract: We conducted a status-survey on Snow
Leopard Panthera unciaand its main prey, the Blue Sheep Pseudois nayaur, in the Mustang District of Nepal’s Annapurna
Conservation Area, in 2010 and 2011. Sign transects, covering a total linear distance of 19.4km, revealed an
average density of 5.8 signs per kilometer, which
compares with those from other Snow Leopard range countries. This also roughly
corresponded with the minimum number of three adult Snow Leopards we obtained
from nine remote cameras, deployed to monitor areas of c. 75km2 in
extent. We obtained 42 pictures of
Snow Leopards during nine capture events. We conclude that Mustang harbors at least
three adult Snow Leopards, and probably more, along with a healthy Blue Sheep
population (a total of 528 individuals, along 37.6km of Snow Leopard transect
lines). We suggest that
people-wildlife conflicts exist but that the local people tolerate Snow
Leopards based on their Buddhist socio-religious values.
Keywords:Annapurna, Blue Sheep, Buddhism, camera-trapping,
Himalayas, Mustang, sign-survey, Snow Leopard.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3635.5534-43 | ZooBank:urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:CAB76A86-19AA-4B22-ACE2-EEEF27ACBA8A
Editor: HemSagar Baral, Zoological
Society of London - Nepal Office, Kathmandu, Nepal. Date of
publication: 26 March 2014 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms #
o3635 | Received 24 May 2013 | Final received 17 March 2014 | Finally accepted
19 March 2014
Citation: Ale, S.B., B. Shrestha& R. Jackson (2014). On the status of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775)
in Annapurna, Nepal. Journal of Threatened Taxa6(3): 5534–5543; http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3635.5534-43
Copyright: © Ale et al. 2014. Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and
the source of publication.
Funding: The major funding for this research came from Snow
Leopard Conservancy (SLC-Nepal program) and RSG/Booster grant (Snow Leopards
Corridor Project), while other supports (e.g., logistic) came from National
Trust for Nature Conservation and CzechGlobe (Global
Change Research Center AS CR).
Competing Interest: The
authors declare no competing interests.
Author Contribution: All authors have equal contributions in designing and
undertaking the field work and data-collection, and
writing the manuscript.
Author Details: Som Ale has been working for Snow Leopard research, education
and conservation in Nepal since 1993, first as the professional staff of the
National Trust for Nature Conservation, and now as the regional conservation
director of the Snow Leopard Conservancy. He teaches at the University of Illinois at Chicago, USA. Bikram Shrestha completed his M.Sc. in 2003
from Tribhuvan University of Nepal. Since his
graduation, he has been actively involved in Snow Leopard and other wildlife
research in the mountains of Nepal. He teaches wildlife biology at the Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Nepal. Rodney Jackson is the
founding director of the Snow Leopard Conservancy, the US-based nonprofit, established in 2000. He was also the first biologist to
radio-collar and embarked on the classic study on Snow Leopard ecology and behavior in remote Dolpo District
in Nepal.
Acknowledgements: We thank National Trust for Nature Conservation
(Nepal), Snow Leopard Conservancy (US), CzechGlobe-Global
Change Research Center AS CR, and RuffordFoundation, for supporting the field work. We thank Lalu Gurung, Pema Tsering, and Ghurmi Gurung, for their assistance in data-collection and camera-trapping, Charleen Gavette for helping to construct the map, and personnel of
the Annapurna Conservation Area Project in Pokhara, Jomsom and Lo-Manthang for
logistic and other support.
For figures, images, tables -- click here
Introduction and objectives
The endangered Snow Leopards Panthera unciainhabit some of the world’s most rugged landscape, exemplified by the Himalaya,
where they prefer steep, rugged terrain well broken by cliffs, ridges, gullies
and rocky outcrops (Schaller 1977; Jackson & Ahlborn1989). Annapurna Conservation Area,
a part of Nepal Himalaya, dominated by some of the world’s tallest mountains,
supports a significant proportion of Nepal’s Snow Leopards estimated at
350–500 individuals (Jackson & Ahlborn1990). A large portion of this lies within Mustang District covering c. 47% of the
Annapurna Conservation Area (7,629km2) (NTNC 2008). Snow Leopards have been reported from
the adjoining districts, Manang (Oli1994) to the east and Dolpo (Jackson & Alhborn 1990) to the west, but little is known about the
population in Mustang except for anecdotal accounts of livestock losses
allegedly killed by this large feline.
We explored different areas in Mustang to
record the presence and current conservation status of Snow Leopards, under a
joint collaboration between the Snow Leopard Conservancy (USA) and the National
Trust for Nature Conservation, Nepal’s largest non-governmental environmental
organization that manages the Annapurna Conservation Area. The vast and rugged land of Mustang may
be one of the strategic locations where Snow Leopards from eastern and western
Nepal may interbreed over time and thereby maintain their metapopulationstructure. Alternately sundrenched and snow-driven, whipped and scoured by
ceaseless wind, Mustang has been drained by the Kali GandakiRiver which had cut the world’s deepest gorge between the Annapurna (8090m) and
Dhaulagiri (8167m) massifs.
Our specific questions in this study were:
How does the abundance of Snow Leopard signs in
Mustang compare to those reported elsewhere? Does the Snow Leopard have any
socio-religious significance to the local people? Besides Snow Leopards and
their more visible prey, the Blue Sheep Pseudois naur, Mustang also harborsthe Grey Wolf Canis lupus, Lynx Lynx lynx isabellinus, and other ungulates like the
nearly-threatened Tibetan Argali Sheep Ovis ammon hodgsonii and the
Tibetan Gazelle Procapra picticaudata, but the latter species are mostly confined
to the northern rim along the Tibet (China) border. Mustang is not only diverse in its large
mammal fauna but also represents a culturally vibrant region. Sparsely inhabited by over 15,000
people, Mustang supports close to 100,000 livestock (yak, cattle, horse, mules,
sheep, and goats). The region
annually receives about 30,000 international trekkers within its lower
reaches. Closed to foreign visitors
until 1991, Mustang, acquired an aura of mystery (NTNC 2008). In the 1950s and 1960s it served as a
base for the Tibetan freedom fighters or Khampa who
were engaged in a futile struggle against the Chinese presence in Tibet. As recently as 2007, previously unknown
Buddhist and pre-Buddhist religious texts and wall paintings dating from the 15thcentury have been found in series of man-made caves carved onto sheer
unconsolidated sandstone cliffs. These indicate Mustang served as a center for
Buddhism and Bon religion for many centuries. In this study, we examined
socio-religious values of Snow Leopard, and suggest their conservation
implications.
Study Area and Methods
We explored remote valleys in Mustang in
2010 (one survey) and 2011 (two surveys). Two study sites included Lower Mustang [i.e., the upper reaches of Thini, Jomsom (district
headquarters), Lubra, and Muktinath], and Upper
Mustang (the rugged terrain around Chhuksang, Chaile, and Somar) [Fig. 1].
Snow Leopard sign survey and habitat
characterization: To detect Snow Leopard sign, we trekked across the region
extensively, visiting all locations with suitable terrain and habitat where we
judged Snow Leopards and their prey may occur, and established the transects
employing the techniques of the Snow Leopard Information Management System
(Jackson & Hunter 1996). This
is a method commonly used for monitoring Snow Leopards whichis low in cost and has minimal impact on the species being studied (see
Schaller 1977; Schaller 1998; Wilson & Delahay2001; Wolf & Ale 2009). With
the help of 1:50,000 topographic maps, we located ridgelines, narrow valleys,
trails and cliff-edges, used most frequently by Snow Leopards to move about
their home range (Jackson & Hunter 1996). We randomly selected 27 of these sites
for ground surveys in which we walked along sign transects of various lengths
to record sign known or presumed to have been left by Snow Leopards. We concentrated on elevations between
3,000m and 5,500m, which comprise a zone of dry alpine and subalpine steppe or
semi steppe vegetation, the preferred vegetation cover type used by Snow
Leopard. Forests are sparsely distributed
largely because of the strong rain-shadow effect of the Annapurna and
Dhaulagiri ranges (Stainton 1972; Dobremez1976). The primary vegetation types
are Blue Pine Pinus wallichianaand West Himalayan Fir Abies spectabilis forests at lower elevations on moist
slopes, Juniper Juniperus indica woodland or scrub at mid-elevations, and alpine
meadows or barren snowfields and rock with scattered grasses and sedges at
higher elevations. We covered
19,400.4m of linear distance (27 transects, mean length 718.5m, range=400-1000
m, SE=33.8).
We ran the transects during autumn
(7–16 November) of 2010, and spring (1–10 May) and summer
(12–27 July) of 2011, judged as the most appropriate times of year to
detect sign. Each season, we ran the transect only once. In autumn 2010, we concentrated in Lower Mustang and in spring 2011 in
Upper Mustang. We revisited all
transects in both study sites in the summer 2011. We located and characterized sign left
by Snow Leopards, including feces (scats), footprints
(pugmarks), scrapes, scent (spray) marks, and boulders and rocks used by Snow
Leopards to cheek-rub and deposit their scent (often located at or near active
scrape sites). This is known as
“transect method” in which we recorded Snow Leopard signs along pre-selected
transects (see Fox et al. 1991; Mallon 1991; Jackson & Hunter 1996). In addition to searching for leopard
sign along transects (transect method), we also recorded the signs
opportunistically encountered while traversing from one alpine valley to
another for undertaking sign transect or to observe prey species (Blue
Sheep). Snow Leopard signs
encountered under this more wide-ranging “incidental detection method” provided
a useful comparison to information gathered along sign transects. For each sign
encountered, we recorded the date and location; the latter was determined using
Garmin eTrex Venture global positioning system
receivers (average 20-m accuracy; Garmin International Inc., Olathe, Kansas).
We also characterized the following habitat variables within a 50m radius of
each sign site: elevation, slope, aspect, habitat ruggedness, and habitat
type. For each 1,000m of transect
length, we randomly selected four to six sites where we characterized available
habitat for a total of 209 plots in Upper Mustang and 139 in Lower Mustang. To
avoid spatial autocorrelation and pseudo-replication, we considered all sign
found within 50m distance of each other during the
same year to represent a single site.
Prey
(Blue Sheep) survey: While searching Snow Leopard sign during
autumn 2010 and spring and summer of 2011, we also surveyed Blue Sheep, Snow
Leopard’s main local prey, opportunistically, to understand its population
structure and composition. We
counted all individuals of a Blue Sheep herd whenever we sighted one, and
classified them into young (less than a year), yearling (1–2 years),
adult female and male (over 2 years) (Schaller 1977). Some individuals obviously could not be
identified because they were too far or hid behind a bush or boulder. We further classified male Blue Sheep
into young male (2–5 years) and old male (over 5 years).
Interviews
and livestock depredation survey: We obtained
socio-religious information through individual and focus-groupinterviews of local villagers especially herders. We randomly picked ten major villages out
of the 20 settlements in two study areas to assess Snow Leopards depredation,
the region’s only large predator of significance in this regard. We interviewed all households in each
village, and obtained information on livestock herd size and mortality over the
past 12 months. We lumped livestock
mortality into two categories for our study purpose: that attributed to Snow
Leopards and the number of losses from all other sources, notably disease and
accidents). We interviewed key
informants (e.g., elderly herders, village leaders) to document their
perceptions toward Snow Leopards and other wildlife. Key-informant interviews were not
structured, while we used structured- or semi-structured-questionnaires for the
household-surveys.
Remote-camera
survey: In 2011, we deployed remotely triggered
cameras to document and estimate the minimum number of Snow Leopards present in
areas surveyed. Camera trapping is
being increasingly deployed in monitoring of rare and shy wildlife (Karanth & Nichols 1998; Jackson et al. 2006). We located suitable camera-trap sites
along high, well-defined and narrow ridgelines or valley bottoms at or
immediately adjacent to frequently scent-sprayed rocks and scrapes (Fig. 1;
Jackson et al. 2006). In all we
deployed nine remotely-triggered cameras (Bushnell andScoutGuard passive infrared detector) in Lower
Mustang valley, from 20 October to 25 December 2011. One camera was stolen and another
malfunctioned, so that only seven cameras were fully operable during the 58-day
survey-period. Lower Mustang was
selected for cameras-trapping instead of Upper Mustang
because of its incidences of heavy livestock depredation by Snow Leopard,
accessibility, and well-defined travel corridors where remote cameras could be
installed to achieve a more consistent photo capture success. We selected three
strategic watersheds for locating nine cameras: Four cameras were placed in theVrapsa-Namu drainage (28.760960N &
083.801310E), three in Lubra (28.786470N & 083.809040E),
and two in the Muktinath area (28.808500N
& 083.873550E) (see Fig. 1 for camera-location sites, 1 to
9). Ideally, we would have
preferred to deploy our small number of cameras at a density of at least one
camera per ca. 25km2 - judged to be the minimum home range size of a
female adult Snow Leopard: Jackson 1996). However, we were unable to do so due to gaps in coverage due to
inaccessibility, large patches of unsuitable or poor habitat, and the large
area that needed to be surveyed within a relatively short time period (three
months). Each station had one
camera-trap placed at a distance of 2–3 m from the anticipated travel
path (Jackson et al. 2006). The
camera-traps were checked approximately every 12–15 days, and batteries
changed if necessary.
Results and discussion
Scrapes and scats represented the most
frequently detected sign type (89%), with few pugmarks or scent sprays being
detected least often. Total sign
abundance along all transects was 5.8 per km (3.7 scrapes/km, Table 1a). The likelihood of encountering signs was
highest in spring (10.2 signs/km) and lowest in summer (2.1 signs/km). Our incidental method of sign search
revealed 77 signs in 35 full days of searching (7–16 November 2010,
1–10 May 2011, and 12–27 July 2011). Except for pugmarks, the proportions of
other sign types that we encountered along the transectswere similar to signs encountered during opportunistic surveys (Table 1b).
Snow Leopard sign density in Mustang may
be comparable to that reported from Mt. Everest (4.5 all signs/km, 3.2 scrapes/km:
Ale 2007). The sign density was
much lower in Rolwaling in eastern Nepal (3.2 all
sign/km, <1 scrape/km: Ale et al. 2010). Genetic sampling in Mt. Everest revealed
four resident cats (Lovari et al. 2009) during
the same time period, while Snow Leopards were apparently transient in Rolwaling in the Gaurishankarregion (Ale et al. 2010). An
unpublished report based on genotyping (Karmacharyaet al. 2012) confirmed the presence of three individuals in Rolwaling. The LanguValley, a rugged area with very sparse human habitation in western Nepal, with
an estimated density of 8–10 cats/100km2 (based on 4.5 year
radio-telemetry study), revealed 36 signs (all types) per km (Jackson
1996). While sign abundance in
Mustang is much lower than that recorded in Dolpo, it
is more frequent than Ladakh, India (2.6 scrapes/km,
with 1 cat/100km2: Fox et al. 1991) or northern Pakistan (2.4
all sign, with 1.2-2 cats/100km2: Hussain2003). Mustang has many broad
ridges and wide U-shaped valleys, making it difficult to detect Snow Leopard
signs. As noted, Snow Leopards
prefer sharp-ridges at least in the Himalayas (Jackson 1996). While comparing different areas, the
selection of sign-transects, and corresponding signs per unit transect length,
may bias our perceptions of Snow Leopard distribution and abundance. For instance, in Ladakh,
Snow Leopard signs were much more abundant along sharp ridges and river
confluence (Fox et al. 1991; Mallon 1991), but in Qinghai (China) Snow Leopards
marked the bases of hills flanking broad valleys where its travel routes were
less well defined, thus making it difficult to locate their sign along
transects (Schaller et al. 1988).
Scrapes and scent (or spray) marks are
considered as the most reliable determinants of the Snow Leopard presence and
abundance, while feces and pugmarks are less so. The former category of signs is
expensive to produce, bio-economically speaking, while the latter may be less
expensive (cf. Schaller 1977, 1998). A non-invasive genetics study by Janecka et
al. (2008) in Mongolia determined that up to 60% of all scats considered to have been deposited by Snow Leopard in fact
belonged to Red Fox Vulpes vulpes.
However, sign density may offer an index
of relative abundance of Snow Leopards for comparing different areas, provided
that they have comparable topographies. It may be useful for monitoring
abundance trends in the same location over time, as long as these are supplemented
by other methods, for instance, remote cameras (e.g., McCarthy et al. 2008) or
genetic sampling (e.g., Janecka et al. 2008,
2011). It has been suggested that
index values can be used to estimate population size by calibrating them with
estimates derived from parallel methods (Wilson & Delahay2001). The guesstimate of Snow
Leopard numbers based on sign abundance to date follows Jackson & Hunter
(1996): 20 signs per kilometer could indicate 10
individuals per 100km2, a crude, quick and easy-to-use method, which
to date has been useful in conservation planning in countries where resources
are scarce. Caughley(1977, p. 12) observed that “The majority of
ecological problems can be tackled with the help of indices of density,
absolute estimates of density being unnecessary luxuries.” It is widely recognized that determining
absolute densities of most large mammals is a complex and often
controversial undertaking, with direct counts being impractical, and
therefore researchers must often rely upon indirect evidence, such as tracks,
scats or densities.
We found the likelihood of encountering
Snow Leopard sign in Mustang was greatest in spring (10.2 signs per km) and
least in summer (1.2 signs per km), suggesting that Snow Leopards move to
higher sites that are more rugged and precipitous, and, therefore, inaccessible
to humans in summer as pressures from livestock grazing and human presence
intensify at lower elevations. It
may be that Snow Leopard sign was obliterated by livestock in summer and hence
the subsequent finding of lower sign abundance in summer than in autumn, but
our conjecture that Snow Leopards and Blue Sheep may have moved higher up in
summer were reported from elsewhere (e.g., Jackson 1996; Oli& Rogers 1996). In any case,
further study is required to validate this claim. No difference in sign density was noted
between Lower and Upper Mustang (Table 1b), although the latter appears to
offer much better habitat for this carnivore. The much higher scrape densities in
Upper Mustang than in Lower Mustang may reflect differential terrain conditions
between the two study sites: the scrapes and other signs were more visible
along barren ridgelines which dominate in Upper Mustang compared to the
relatively more vegetated ridges in Lower Mustang.
Our opportunistic survey on blue sheep
population structure and composition revealed the overall average group size
12.6 (SE=1.6, range = 1-43, n=42) [Table 2a]. This was comparable to that reported by Oli (1996) two decades earlier in the adjoining district ofManang (mean group size in Manang,
15.6, SE=1.3, n=176)]. That we
obviously missed many herds, in particular all-male groups, is evident from the
male-to-female ratio (which was much lower than 1). Group size was comparatively larger in
Lower Mustang than in Upper Mustang - probably a reflection of differences in
terms of terrain-ruggedness and quality of habitat. Upper Mustang revealed 30%
bare ground compared to Lower Mustang (21%) from our habitat sampling plots
(Upper Mustang, 209 plots; Lower Mustang 139). That Upper Mustang had a lower
young-to-old male ratio than Lower Mustang may be because the region is less
productive (Table 2b), an observation in line with Schaller‘s (1977) opinion
that productive grasslands would be expected to have a higher proportion of
young males while the opposite would be the case with the ungulate population
occupying degraded grasslands (i.e., rangelands with less vegetative cover or
biomass). However, to our knowledge,
this hypothesis is yet to be rigorously tested.
The kid-to-female ratio of Blue Sheep in
Mustang is within the expected normal range (0.6, Table 2b). The proportion of females seen with a
lamb at the end of the birthing season is often used as a proxy for birth rates
in ungulates (e.g., Elk Cervus elaphus L.: Eberhardt et al.
1996; White-eared Kob Kobus kob leucotis A. Smith: Fryxell 1987; Moose Alces alces L.: Laurian et
al. 2000; Himalayan Tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus: Scahller1977; Ale 2007; Lovari et al. 2009). This provides a quick, easy-to-use
method to assess the overall reproductive status of ungulates, at least in open
habitats where they can be more easily observed and classified according to age
group. A normal range for
kid-to-female ratio for ungulates is considered c. 0.6 for stable populations
and c. 0.7 for a growing population.
Despite the barren landscape with its
patchy vegetation, Mustang appears to support a healthy blue sheep population
(e.g., reasonable kid-to-female ratio, robust physical conditions) and a
relatively sound number of Snow Leopards (see below). The local people’s benevolent attitudes
toward wildlife, together with Annapurna Conservation Area Project’s
conservation actions since the early 1990s, may be credited for this. Part of the reason why Snow Leopards
have been thriving and will hopefully continue to do so could possibly be
attributed due to area’s harsh climate, remoteness and rugged terrain which discourage visitation by outsiders. In 2007 members of a National Geographic
team and their local guides explored the area from Chhuksangand Ghami to the more remote Lo-Manthangand discovered a series of several centuries old caves carved into the sheer
cliffs. One of the caves was
christened “the Snow Leopard cave” since this elusive species’ footprints were
found inside.
Our sign surveys revealed only two sets of
pugmarks belonging to two adult Snow Leopards in the entire region in 2010 and
2011, but exhaustive interviews with local herders suggested the existence of
at least three adult Snow Leopards - one occurring singly, and two in pair.
We obtained a total of 42 pictures of Snow
Leopards during nine capture events resulting in a capture success of 2.3
individuals per 100 trap nights in 2011 (Table 3). Jackson et al. (2006) reported 66 and 49
capture events (capture success 8.9 and 5.6 per 100 trap-nights) in two
consecutive years of 2003 and 2004 in Hemis National
Park in India. An indication that
our camera locations and/or site set-up parameters were not ideal is the large
number of false images (e.g., moving vegetation) and photos of non-targeted
species such as livestock, birds, and other mammals (a total of 26,661) [Table
3]. However, unlike survey by
Jackson et al.(2006) in Hemis,
our objective was simply to determine the minimum number of Snow Leopards in
selected sites as the basis for formulating the framework for consecutive year
monitoring. To assist in this, we
involved local school students belonging to the Snow Leopard Scoutsinitiative, along with herders (who served as local guides given their
knowledge of the terrain as well as wildlife).
We used pelage patterning, specifically
spots on the flanks, dorsal surface of the tail, and on forehead to identify
individual Snow Leopards (see Jackson et al. 2006). Neither cubs nor juveniles were captured
by the remote-cameras during these surveys, although they have been digitally
captured subsequently. Three individuals were documented in 2011 (Images
1–3). We could not allocate
10 images to known individuals in three different events. We conclude that our study site in Lower
Mustang (an area of ca. 75km2) supported a minimum of three adult
Snow Leopards during the period of observation.
Key-person interviews revealed that local
people had a positive attitude toward the Blue Sheep but mixed feelings toward
the Snow Leopard. In high altitude
settlements elsewhere in Nepal, the act of appeasing the Snow Leopard in
ceremonies has been a traditional social norm. For example, Khumbu,
Mount Everest and Rolwaling areas contain ‘beyuls’ [the fabled Shangri-la orShambala], valleys that locals consider are hidden
from evil forces and protected by mountain Gods (Ale et al. 2010). Should a person with ill intentions try
to reach a beyul, it is believed he or she will be
attacked and driven away by the Snow Leopard at the mountain pass
entrance. No clear written accounts
exist to affirm whether Mustang is a beyul or not,
but legend has it that the 8th century Buddhist saint ‘Padma Sambhava’, on his way to Tibet, stopped in Muktinath (a salvation valley for Hindu people at the
elevation of 3,710m - and also a religious site for Buddhists), meditated and
blessed this sacred place. Legend
further states that Yogi battled and defeated the local demon while travelling
through Ghemi on his way to Lo-Manthang,
the medieval capital of the ancient Kingdom of Lo. At the demon’s demise, its intestines
fell out and this is said to have led to construction of the longest
prayer-wall in northern Nepal.
Local inhabitants showed mixed feelings
toward Snow Leopard for good reasons: livestock-rearing, although declining,
still represents a significant socio-economic activity in Mustang, and Snow
Leopards often prey upon domestic animals. As elsewhere (Mt. Everest region, for instance, see Ale et al. 2007)
with increasing number of youths seeking employment in the more lucrative
trekking and other businesses, the resulting laborshortage is adversely affecting current livestock herding and guarding
practices. The interviews with
herders in 10 selected settlements (Table 4) revealed that losses to Snow
Leopard ranged from none to as high as 6.6% of livestock holdings in 2010 and
2011. Yet, villagers in settlements
like Lubra suffering large livestock mortality to Snow Leopard (5.6% of total
stock per annum) are still willing to tolerate the presence of Snow Leopards,
albeit uneasily. Another widely
known legend states that the Bon-Po and Buddhist deities, disguised as Snow
Leopard, are believed to travel from one settlement to another guarding the
village’s domain from demons and natural calamities. So killing a Snow Leopard may also mean
harming the community’s ancestral spirits. Although 3.3% of all livestock losses were attributed to Snow Leopard
depredation, many more animals (16% of total) died from other causes. The rate of livestock mortality in
Mustang is similar to that has been reported from other parts of Snow Leopard
range (see Jackson et al. 2010).
We conclude that Mustang offers good
quality, protected habitat for the endangered Snow Leopard, and may also serve
as a strategic corridor enabling leopards to disperse through this portion of
the Himalayan and trans-Himalayan ranges. However, a detailed, systematic corridor assessment is needed to
identify suitable Snow Leopard-corridors across the Himalaya of Nepal where
conservation interventions could be best mounted. By mapping seasonal livestock movements,
collecting other biological and physical variables (in addition to Snow Leopard
sign data), and analyzing DNA from scats, hair and
kills, it may be possible to develop an agent-based corridor model that
reasonably predicts how Snow Leopards move across the landscape and respond to
various management options.
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