Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2025 | 17(12): 28076–28082
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10094.17.12.28076-28082
#10094 | Received 14 August 2025 | Final received 20 November 2025 |
Finally accepted 12 December 2025
Population
dynamics and habitat preference in Painted Stork Mycteria
leucocephala and Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus
in Dighal Wetland, Jhajjar,
Haryana, India
1 Department of Zoology,
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136119, India.
2 Department of Zoology, Institute
of Integrated and Honors Studies, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana
136119, India.
1 sonynayyar2000@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 saritarana20@gmail.com
Editor: H. Byju,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date of publication: 26 December 2025 (online & print)
Citation: Sony
& S. Rana (2025). Population dynamics and habitat preference in Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala and
Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus
in Dighal Wetland, Jhajjar,
Haryana, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 17(12): 28076–28082. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10094.17.12.28076-28082
Copyright: © Sony & Rana 2025. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: URS (University Research Scholarship).
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Sony is currently pursuing Ph.D. degree at Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, working on the comparative ecology of Painted Stork and Woolly-Necked Stork at Gurugram and Jhajjar District, Haryana. Her research focus is on animal behaviour and wildlife, mainly on storks. Sarita Rana is currently working as an associate professor in the Department of Zoology, Institute of Integrated & Honors Studies, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. Her keen research interests include ecology and ornithology.
Author contributions: First author (S) has collected data, analyses the data and give this data a form of rough manuscript. Second author (SR) designed the study along with the first author and give the rough draft a final manuscript form.
Acknowledgements: The author would like to express gratitude to the University Research Scholarship for funding the research. We also extend our thanks to the chairperson of the Department of Zoology and the staff of the Institute of Integrated and Honors Studies, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, for providing the necessary facilities for this research. Profound thanks are also due to prof. Parmesh Kumar, Ms. Pinki and Mr. Chand Ram for their assistance with data analysis.
Abstract: The current study looks at the
Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala
and Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus populations and their habitat utilization in
the wetlands of Dighal, Haryana. The distribution and
abundance of both species were evaluated through field surveys in various
wetland habitats. The findings show that the Painted Stork population exhibited
considerable habitat fluctuation, indicating a strong preference for specific
wetland locations that offer the best chances for foraging and breeding. The
range of the Woolly-necked Stork, on the other hand, was comparatively
consistent throughout various habitats, suggesting a wider ecological
tolerance. Painted Stork was most commonly observed in wetlands, whereas
Woolly-necked Stork was observed in marshes and dry areas. Among the different
habitats, the highest number of individuals of Painted Stork (7.41 ± 1.83) was
seen in wetland, and Woolly‑necked Stork (0.75 ± 0.37) was
seen in agricultural land. The lowest number of individuals of Painted Stork
(2.66 ± 0.69) was seen in barren land, and Woolly‑necked Stork (0.66 ± 0.35) was seen in wetland. These results
demonstrate importance of preserving Dighal’s varied
wetland habitats to sustain both specialized and generalist stork species and
further knowledge of their ecological needs in a constantly shifting landscape.
Keywords: Anthropogenic activities,
coexistence, conservation, line transect method, point count method,
seasonal variation, species abundance, vegetation, waterbirds,
wetland ecology.
INTRODUCTION
There are 20
species of storks in the world, the majority of which are found in tropical or
subtropical regions. With 20 living species, storks are a prominent pan-global
freshwater flagship taxon listed on the IUCN Red List (Gula
et al. 2023). This study concentrates on the Painted Stork Mycteria
leucocephala Pennant, 1769 and Woolly-necked
Stork Ciconia episcopus
Boddaert, 1783, two of the least researched
water-bird species worldwide (Sundar 2020). Both the
species Painted Stork and Woolly-necked stork are large wading birds that
belong to the family Ciconiidae under the order Ciconiiformes, found in India and southeastern Asia (Kalam & Urfi 2008), inhabit a
variety of habitats including marshes, woods, agricultural regions, and
freshwater wetlands (Sundar 2006; Kittur
& Sunder 2021). The Painted Stork is distinguished by its colourful plumage, which consists of black, white, and a
characteristic pinkish tint on its wings. Males and females are largely similar
in appearance because there is little sexual dimorphism in this species. Males
often have longer wingspans and more body mass than females, making them
slightly larger (Kalam & Urfi
2006; Jangra & Verma
2024). Studies have shown that Painted Stork exhibit a strong preference for
natural wetlands over rice fields and irrigation canals across seasons (Sundar 2006). While wetland saw relatively few
Woolly-necked Stork sightings, with the majority being in agricultural fields (Kittur & Sunder 2020; Sundar
2020). Woolly-necked Stork is characterized as a single species of
forest-nesting stork (Sundar 2020). The Painted Stork
is listed as ‘Least Concern’ whereas the Asian Woolly-necked Stork conservation
status is currently regarded as ‘Near Threatened’ on the IUCN Red List (IUCN
2025). The colonial nester Painted Stork is widely distributed in Sri Lanka and
India (Tiwary & Urfi
2016). Woolly-necked Storks are solitary nesters that perch atop telephone
towers, cliffs, and trees (Roshnath & Greeshma 2020). India is home to many Painted Storks which
breed in mixed colonies and build their nests on trees that grow on islands in
marshes, village tanks, urban water bodies, and parks (Tiwary
& Urfi 2016; Byju et
al. 2025). Woolly-necked Storks often exhibit seasonal migrations throughout
the summer months in other parts of southern Asia (Sundar
2020). Numerous biological and environmental elements, including vegetation
types, aquatic life, climate, and water quality, have a significant impact on
the species diversity and population density of birds in wetland conditions (Bhawnani et al. 2025). Although there are regional
variations in the species’ population, habitat loss, pollution, and human activities
pose dangers to it (Sundar 2020; Bhawnani
et al. 2025). The composition and activities of wetlands are particularly
impacted by urbanization. Urban wetlands offer vital habitat for birds and
significant ecosystem services in an ecologically altered landscape, despite
their simplified shape and diminished function (Suryawanshi
& Sundar 2019; Kumar et al. 2025). The purpose of
the study is to evaluate the two species’ populations and distribution
patterns, paying special attention to habitat usage and species-specific
preference. Dighal Wetland is an ecologically
significant location for these water-birds to forage and roost, as evident by
the data showing notable variations in abundance across months and wetland
microhabitats. The results of this study help to influence wetland management
methods and provide useful baseline data for tracking conservation status. To
protect the species, effective conservation measures are essential, especially
since human pressures are still endangering their natural habitats. The
development of conservation strategies for these species is urgently needed
because of the extreme stresses on their habitat (Kalam
& Urfi 2008).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The current
study was conducted in the village of Dighal, Jhajjar District. The entire area of the state of Haryana
is 1,834 km2, of which 670 km2 are dedicated to
agricultural land (Anjali & Rana 2021). Dighal
Wetland covers a total area of 131.1 ha (Parul &
Kumar 2023, 2024). It is located in the north-west of the state of Haryana, 20
km from the district headquarters and 70 km from Delhi. The villages of Sampla to the east, Kalanaur to
the west, Rohtak to the north, and Jhajjar to the
south encircle it (Soni & Rana 2023). The
district has a subtropical climate with four distinct seasons: summer
(May–July), autumn (August–October), winter (November–January), and spring
(February–April). The climate in district of Jhajjar
is frigid in the winter and scorching in the summer. This area receives roughly
577 mm of annual rainfall, with the monsoon season accounting for over 75% of
that total (Anjali & Rana 2022). Village Dighal
was declared a potential Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBBA) (IN-HR-06)
by BirdLife International (Anjali & Rana 2024).
The Dighal wetland is suitable for migratory birds in
the winter because they are encircled by irrigated agricultural fields with
wheat and paddy crops, as well as tree species like Safeda
(Eucalyptus spp.), Kikar (Acacia spp.),
and Ber (Ziziphus
spp.) along the wetland edges (Parul & Kumar
2023).
Bird Survey
The field
visits were carried out from August 2024 to July 2025, twice a month. To assess
the population dynamics of Painted Stork and Woolly-necked Stork, the
point count and line transect methods were employed, depending on habitat
openness and accessibility. Nikon Coolpix digital camera P950 and Nikon 10x50
binoculars were used for all observations. The study area was chosen after a
reconnaissance survey, which involved preliminary visits to different wetland
habitats in Dighal to assess habitat characteristics,
bird presence, and anthropogenic activities. Based on these observations, Dighal Wetland was chosen for a detailed study of the
Painted Stork and Woolly-necked Stork.
The point
count locations were selected at fixed spots distributed across wetland’s
different habitats (open water, marshland, and agricultural areas) with broad
visibility for 10 minutes, recording all individuals within a 100 m radius
between 0600–1800 h in good weather. With this approach, all habitat
types were covered, allowing for a reliable assessment of bird abundance. We observed
species, their behaviour, and habitat. In dense or
complex vegetation area, transects of 500–700 about 500 m to 1.5 km were laid
to observe the storks, recording birds seen within 250 m and estimating their
perpendicular distance. This combined approach ensured comprehensive coverage
across diverse microhabitats for an accurate assessment of stork abundance and
distribution. It is an easy technique that offers a consistent way to count
birds throughout time or in different places. Randomly assigned point counts
can serve as representative samples over a vast area. In order to verify the
habitat composition for ground truthing, a single GPS location was recorded for
each flock. Painted Stork and Woolly-necked Stork were recorded within 250 m on
both sides of transect (Anjali & Rana 2024) (Figure 2).
Ecological
studies employ the line transect method as a sampling approach to determine the
distribution and abundance of species in various habitats. The population data
for both storks were shown as mean ± standard error (SE). Using the one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA), the populations of Painted Stork and
Woolly-necked Stork were compared at several locations. IBM SPSS 23 Software
was used for all statistical analyses (Table 1).
RESULTS
In this study,
a total of 169 Painted Storks and 31 Woolly-necked Storks were observed from
the distinct habitats. Painted Storks were mostly recorded from Wetlands,
followed by agricultural, and barren land. On the other hand, Woolly‑necked Storks were dominant in marshes and arid areas (Figure 2). Among
the different habitats, the highest number of individuals of Painted Stork
(7.41 ± 1.83) was seen in the wetland and Woolly‑necked Stork (0.75 ± 0.37) was observed in agricultural land. The lowest
number of individuals of Painted Stork (2.66 ± 0.69) was seen in barren land
and Woolly‑necked Stork (0.66 ± 0.35) was
seen in wetland, respectively. The habitat-wise population of Painted Stork
varies significantly (P <0.05), whereas that for Woolly-necked Stork shows
no statistically significant difference (P >0.05) (Table 1). Population
abundance of Painted Stork was found to be significantly greater in wetland
habitat (P <0.05, F = 3.78) as compared to agricultural and barren
landscapes; similarly, the population of Woolly-necked Stork was also found to
be significantly greater in agricultural land area (P >0.05, F = 0.61) as
compared to other habitats, as shown in Table 1. During August 2024–July
2025, there was a discernible seasonal change in the Painted Stork and Woolly-necked
Stork abundance. The winter months (December to February) had the maximum
numbers of both species, peaking in mid-December. There was significantly more
Painted Stork (84.5%) than Woolly-necked Stork (15.5%). On the other hand,
lesser abundance of both species was observed in the summer season (May to
July). From October to December, when the migratory season began, a steady rise
in population (i.e., total number of individuals recorded in each habitat type)
was observed (Figure 3).
DISCUSSION
The current
study highlights the distinct ecological distinctions between the Painted Stork
and Woolly-necked Stork in the Dighal Wetland,
Haryana. The current study demonstrated distinct seasonal changes in the
Painted Stork and Woolly-necked Stork populations at Dighal
Wetland. In addition to migratory movement from other areas, the availability
of open water and foraging grounds during this season may be the reason for the
greater winter abundance of Painted Storks. Painted Stork was more commonly
found in areas around and near waterbodies and open marshes, while the
Woolly-necked Stork usually used agricultural fields, shallow ditches, and
canal sides. This variation in how habitat is used could be a result of
differences in foraging tactics, prey availability, and preferred water depth.
The ready availability of fish and other aquatic prey in shallow waters is
probably the reason why the Painted Stork preferred wetlands (Zakaria et al.
2023; Bhawnani et al. 2025), consistent with findings
of this study. The Woolly-necked Stork, on the other hand, exhibits its
adaptation to human-modified ecosystems by using natural and agricultural
habitats (Kittur & Sundar
2021), a finding supported by this study. The two species may coexist more
easily and compete less if their habitats are segregated. A species-specific
approach to foraging and habitat selection is shown by the Woolly-necked Stork,
particularly for peripheral areas like ditches and agricultural fields. The
greater number of Painted Storks and Woolly-necked Storks were found in wetland
habitat and agricultural land, respectively. Whereas smallest number of
Painted Storks were found in agricultural land and barren land and
Woolly-necked Stork were found in wetland and barren land. This study shows
that by using different areas of waterbodies, Painted Stork is extremely suited
to life in urban wetland. Furthermore, the study’s findings show that Painted
Storks favour areas with fewer human disturbances and
predatory risks, which ensure a secure foraging and breeding environment, and
help to sustain the species’ population (Zakaria et al. 2023), a supporting
observation with this study. According to rough population estimates, the
extent of this species (Woolly-necked Stork) population was previously underestimated,
and the greatest known global population of this species lives in agricultural
environments (Kittur & Sunder 2020). The present
findings also agree with the earlier research which indicated that flock size
and habitat utilization varied significantly by season and location, and
Woolly-necked Stork are also adaptable to shifting conditions on agricultural
landscapes (Kittur & Sunder 2020). Storks may
have been drawn to canals because of the decreased human use of irrigation
canals and the small wetlands that formed alongside them from water escaping
the canals. Furthermore, canals had longer hydroperiods than most marshes,
whereas wetlands were highly seasonal (Kittur & Sundar 2021).
Both the
Storks face several significant threats, including the degradation of feeding
habitats, overfishing in key wetlands, and deforestation that impacts the
availability of nest-building trees (Jangra & Verma 2024; Bhawnani et al.
2025), these findings are supported by the current study. Because of
anthropogenic activities and the way this species behaves in its natural
habitat, it has been determined that these activities are causing storks to
shift their eating habits more frequently, which raises the energy requirements
for flying and food search (Prabhakar & Dudhmal 2016).
Due to increasing agricultural usage and monsoon failure, the wetland’s water
supply has become unstable in recent years, posing a major threat to the
ecosystem. The area around it is largely degraded due to heavy cultivation and
grazing (Anjali & Rana 2022). Since
a substantial tract of agricultural land borders Haryana, it is subject to the
strain of human activity. Therefore, to maintain a healthy ecosystem, such
areas must be protected (Gulati & Rana 2022). The present
study supports previous research on storks’ susceptibility to habitat
loss and human disturbance, but they also draw attention to the
underappreciated function of agricultural landscapes as alternative habitats.
The need for species-specific conservation measures is highlighted by the
different habitat preferences found for Painted Stork and Woolly-necked Stork.
Stork populations can be supported by preserving habitat variability, which is
essential to their existence, while also encouraging sustainable agriculture
practices and protecting wetlands. This study offers fresh perspectives on Dighal Wetland’s seasonal population dynamics, habitat
flexibility, and human-mediated habitat use. Although continuous anthropogenic
concerns require ongoing monitoring and habitat management, local populations,
especially of Painted Storks, may be bigger and more resilient than previously
reported.
CONCLUSION
The Painted
Stork and Woolly-necked Stork at Dighal Wetland
exhibit distinct habitat preferences, which are reflected in their population patterns
across the study area. Painted Storks were mostly recorded in higher numbers
around open wetland zones such as large waterbodies and Jheel
areas, where they find suitable conditions for foraging and feeding. In
contrast, Woolly-necked Storks were more commonly observed in smaller numbers
along agricultural margins, particularly in ditches, canal edges, and flooded
crop fields. This difference in habitat use likely reduces direct competition
between the two species and helps explain the variation in their local
population distribution, shaped by their differing ecological needs and
foraging behaviours.
Table 1. Habitat-wise
population of Painted Stork and
Woolly-necked Stork from August 2024 to July 2025.
|
Habitat |
Painted Stork |
Woolly-necked Stork |
||||||
|
N |
% |
Mean ± standard error |
95% CI (Min–Max) |
N |
% |
Mean ± standard error |
95% CI (Min–Max) |
|
|
Wetland |
89 |
52.66% |
7.41 ± 1.83 |
2.00–24.00 |
8 |
25.80% |
0.66 ± 0.35 |
0.00-–4.00 |
|
Agricultural land |
48 |
28.40% |
4.00 ± 0.95 |
1.00–13.00 |
14 |
45.16% |
0.75 ± 0.37 |
0.00-–4.00 |
|
Barren land |
32 |
18.93% |
2.66 ± 0.69 |
0.00–9.00 |
9 |
29.03% |
1.16 ± 0.29 |
0.00-–3.00 |
|
P-value |
0.03 |
0.59 |
||||||
|
F-value (F) |
3.78 |
0.61 |
||||||
N—Total number of observations |
CI—Confidence interval. All values are presented in mean ± standard error by
one-way ANOVA, significant level at (P <0.05).
FOR
FIGURE & IMAGES - - CLICK HERE FOR FULL PDF
REFERENCES
Byju, H., H. Maitreyi,
R. Natarajan, R. Vijayan & B.A.V. Maran (2025). The avifauna of Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu along the Southeast coast of
India: waterbird assessments and conservation
implications across key sanctuaries and Ramsar
sites. PeerJ 13: e18899. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.18899
Choudhary,
N.L. (2025). Insights
into the population status, distribution, feeding ecology and breeding biology
of painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala) in India: a comprehensive review. Indian
Journal of Applied & Pure Biology 40(2): 963–972.
Gula, J., K.G. Sundar,
S. Willows-Munro & C.T. Downs (2023). The state of stork research
globally: a systematic review. Biological Conservation 280:
109969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109969
Gulati, H.
& S. Rana (2022). Habitat Preference and Current Threats to The Sarus
Cranes Grus Antigone (Aves: Gruiformes: Gruidae) In Important Bird Areas of Haryana, India:
Implications for Determining Effective Conservation Actions. Journal of
Advanced Zoology 43(1): 7–16. https://doi.org/10.17762/jaz.v43i1.110
Spss, I. (2015). IBM SPSS statistics for
windows, version 23.0. IBM Corp, Armonk.
IUCN (2025). The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. Version 2025-2. www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed on 12.viii.2025.
Jangra, L. & R. Verma
(2024). Painted
Stork: The Symbol of Wetland Beauty and Biodiversity, Facing threats and
Conservation challenges. Zenodo 2024: Vi. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14564514
Kalam, A. & A.J. Urfi (2008). Foraging behavior and prey size of the Painted Stork
(Mycteria leucocephala).
Journal of Zoology 274(2): 198–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00374.x
Kittur, S. & K.G. Sundar (2020). Density, flock size and habitat preference of
Woolly-necked Storks Ciconia episcopus in agricultural landscapes of south
Asia. Stork, Ibis and Spoonbill Conservation 2: 71–79. https://doi.org/10.3126/siscon.v2i0.29083
Kittur, S. & K.G. Sundar (2021). Of irrigation canals and multifunctional
agroforestry: Traditional agriculture facilitates Woolly-necked Stork breeding
in a north Indian agricultural landscape. Global Ecology and
Conservation 30: e01793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01793
Kumar, P.
(2023). Assessing
avian diversity and conservation status in Dighal
Wetlands, Haryana, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(10):
23996–24008. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8283.15.10.23996-24008
Kumar, P.
(2024). Foraging
ecology of wetland birds in heterogeneous habitats: A case study of the Dighal wetlands, Haryana, India. Journal of Applied
and Natural Science 16(4): 1627. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v16i4.5976
Kumar, S.N.,
R. Muraleedharan, R. Kalyani, H. Maitreyi
& H. Byju (2025). Avifaunal diversity of Chinnavedampatti Lake: an urban wetland in Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Experimental Zoology India 28(2):
1383–1395. https://doi.org/10.51470/jez.2025.28.2.1383
Prabhakar,
C.S. & D. Dudhmal (2016). Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala):
Population status, shift in food and behavioral ecology from isolated ponds of
Godavari River basin in Nanded district, India. Science Research
Reporter 6(1): 50–57. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.3/2016.6.1/3.1.50.57
Rana, A.
& S. Rana (2021). Habitat selection by Black Headed Ibis (Threskiornis
melanocephalus) and Red Naped
Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa)
in the rural areas of district Jhajjar, Haryana,
India. International Journal of Biosciences and Technology 14(2):
18–27. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5596613
Rana, S.
(2022). Population
abundance and threats to Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis
melanocephalus and Red-naped
Ibis Pseudibis papillosa
at study sites in Jhajjar district, Haryana,
India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 14(11): 22148–22155. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7774.14.11.22148-22155
Rana, S.
(2024). Habitat
Preference and Threats to Black-Headed Ibis Threskiornis
melanocephalus and Red-Naped
Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa)
in Iba Dighal, Haryana,
India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 121(May–August):
113–118. https://doi.org/10.17087/bnhs/2024/v121/170690
Roshnath, R. & P. Greeshma
(2020). Status of
woolly-necked storks in Kerala, south-western India. Stork, Ibis and
Spoonbill Conservation 2: 55–61. https://doi.org/10.3126/siscon.v2i0.29081
Soni, A. & S. Rana (2023). Behavioural
aspects and Activity budgeting of Black Headed Ibis, Threskiornis
melanocephalus and Red Naped
Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa
in Dighal (Potential IBA site), Jhajjar,
Haryana, India. Asian Journal of Conservation Biology 12(1):
143–150. https://doi.org/10.53562/ajcb.76744
Sundar, K.G. (2006). Flock size, density and habitat
selection of four large waterbirds species in an
agricultural landscape in Uttar Pradesh, India: Implications for
management. Waterbirds 29(3): 365–374. https://doi.org/10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[365:FSDAHS]2.0.CO;2
Sundar, K.G. (2020). Woolly-necked Stork-a species
ignored. Stork, Ibis and Spoonbill Conservation 2: 33–41. https://doi.org/10.3126/siscon.v2i0.29080
Suryawanshi, K.R. & K.G. Sundar (2019). Breeding ecology of the Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala
in a managed urban wetland. Indian Birds 15(2): 33–37.
Tiwary, N.K. & A.J. Urfi (2016). Nest survival in Painted Stork (Mycteria
leucocephala) colonies of North India: the
significance of nest age, annual rainfall and winter temperature. Waterbirds 39(2): 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1675/063.039.0205
Urfi, A.J. & A. Kalam (2006). Sexual size dimorphism and mating pattern in the
Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala). Waterbirds 29(4): 489–496. https://doi.org/10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[489:SSDAMP]2.0.CO;2
Zakaria, M.A., U.N.S. Daud, M.S. Mansor & S.M. Nor
(2023). The breeding
ecology of the Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala in central peninsular Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology 31(2):
1121–1135. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.31.2.25